Virus nomenclature classification and propertiessaiyam gothi
This document discusses viruses, including their definition, discovery, classification, and properties. It defines viruses as non-living particles that can only multiply within host cells. Some key points include:
- Viruses were first discovered in the late 1800s and early 1900s, including tobacco mosaic virus and viruses that cause smallpox and rabies.
- Viruses are classified based on their structure, genetic composition, and the hosts they infect, with the main systems being Baltimore classification and ICTV classification.
- Properties of viruses include their small size range of 20-350nm, that they are obligate intracellular parasites, and that they contain either RNA or DNA but not both.
The document discusses retroviruses, which are enveloped viruses that contain an RNA genome and the enzyme DNA polymerase. Retroviruses can be transmitted sexually or through blood and cause diseases like AIDS. Examples given are HIV and sarcoma viruses. Prevention methods include safe sex practices, blood screening for HIV, and avoiding sharing needles.
Poxviruses are a family of viruses that can infect both vertebrates and invertebrates. The most notable member is the smallpox virus. Four genera may infect humans, including orthopox (which includes smallpox, cowpox, and monkeypox viruses) and molluscipox (which causes molluscum contagiosum). Poxviruses have complex brick-shaped particles that contain double-stranded DNA and replicate in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Notable human infections include cowpox, molluscum contagiosum, monkeypox, and smallpox.
RhabdoVirus is a single stranded, linear, negative sense, non-segmented RNA virus that is enveloped and bullet shaped. It multiplies in the cytoplasm. Rabies virus is an example. Rabies virus enters through bites from rabid animals and is carried in the saliva, depositing at the wound site. If untreated, 50% of those exposed will develop rabies as the virus multiplies in muscles, connective tissue and nerves before infecting the central nervous system. Symptoms include headache, fever, sore throat, nervousness, confusion, pain or tingling at the bite site, hallucinations, hydrophobia, paralysis, and eventually coma and death. Diagnosis involves antigen detection
This document discusses various methods for identifying unknown bacterial cultures, including phenotypic, immunological, and genetic techniques. It focuses on morphological identification methods such as staining techniques like simple staining, negative staining, Gram staining, and acid-fast staining. These staining methods allow observation of bacterial size, shape, arrangement and properties to determine the taxon. Identification is important for medical, industrial, and research applications.
This document provides information on various paramyxoviruses, including parainfluenza virus, mumps virus, measles virus, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). It describes their morphology, genome, taxonomy, pathogenesis, transmission, symptoms, complications, diagnosis, and treatment. The paramyxoviruses are enveloped viruses that contain single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genomes. They cause a variety of respiratory illnesses in humans and animals. Laboratory diagnosis involves antigen detection, virus isolation, serology, and molecular techniques like RT-PCR. Vaccines are available to prevent infections from some paramyxoviruses.
Viral cultivation methods involve growing viruses within suitable host cells in order to obtain sufficient virus particles for research and applications. Viruses can be cultivated using bacterial cultures, plant tissue cultures, whole plants, embryonated eggs, animal tissues, and cell cultures. The type of host system used depends on the type of virus. Bacterial viruses are grown in bacterial cultures by plating phage and bacteria together. Plant viruses are grown in whole plants or plant tissue cultures. Animal viruses can be grown in embryonated eggs, animal tissues, or cell cultures. Cell cultures are the most widely used method and allow viruses to be easily detected and grown in large quantities. Primary cell cultures have limited growth potential while continuous cell lines can be grown
The document discusses different systems for classifying viruses. The main systems are the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) system and the Baltimore classification system. The ICTV system is based on phenotypic characteristics and defines virus taxonomy, naming conventions, and species. It aims to develop and maintain a universal virus taxonomy. The Baltimore classification system places viruses into one of seven groups based on their nucleic acid and replication strategy.
The Gram staining method was developed in 1884 by Hans Christian Gram to differentiate between bacteria in tissue samples. It uses crystal violet dye followed by iodine and decolorizing agents to stain bacteria either purple (Gram-positive) or red (Gram-negative) based on their cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer that retains the crystal violet dye, while Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer and stain red. The Gram stain remains a fundamental method for phenotypic characterization of bacteria.
This document discusses various methods for cell disruption to release intracellular products, including physical methods like ultrasonication, osmotic shock, heat shock, and high pressure homogenization. It also covers chemical methods using alkalis, organic solvents, and detergents, as well as enzymatic methods using lysozyme. Several factors influence the effectiveness of these disruption techniques.
Poxviruses are a family of large, complex enveloped viruses that contain double-stranded DNA. They include viruses that infect humans and other vertebrates. Smallpox and molluscum contagiosum are human poxviruses, while viruses like vaccinia, cowpox and monkeypox can infect humans incidentally from animal hosts. Poxviruses replicate in the cytoplasm and have complex virion structures. Important human poxviruses include variola (smallpox virus), which was eradicated in the 1970s through vaccination, and molluscum contagiosum, which causes a generally mild skin infection.
This document discusses the types, production process, and potential spoilage of beer. It begins by introducing beer as the world's oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic beverage, made through fermentation of cereal grains. The main types of beer are ales and lagers. The production process involves malting, mashing, boiling, fermentation, aging, and packaging. Spoilage can occur through bacteria or wild yeasts growing in the beer during production or storage.
orthomyxovirus, any virus belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. Orthomyxoviruses have enveloped virions (virus particles) that measure between 80 and 120 nm (1 nm = 10−9 metre) in diameter. The nucleocapsid, which consists of a protein shell, or capsid, and contains the viral nucleic acids, has helical symmetry.
Retroviruses are a family of viruses that contain the enzyme reverse transcriptase which allows their RNA genetic material to be transcribed into DNA. The retrovirus family includes HIV. Retroviruses infect vertebrates and have an envelope containing glycoproteins. Their lifecycle involves transcribing their RNA genome into DNA inside the host cell and integrating that DNA into the host genome. HIV is a lentivirus that causes AIDS in humans. It is approximately 100 nanometers in diameter and has an envelope with spike proteins and a bullet-shaped core containing its two RNA strands and enzyme proteins. The two main types are HIV-1, which is most common worldwide, and HIV-2, which is concentrated in West Africa
The document summarizes key information about the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses, which includes the influenza viruses that cause flu in humans and other animals. It describes the structure and components of influenza virions, how the viruses replicate and spread infection in the host, symptoms and potential complications, methods of diagnosis, host immune response, and approaches for prevention and treatment, including annual flu vaccines tailored to predicted circulating strains and antiviral drugs that can reduce severity of infection.
This document discusses Hepadnaviridae, a group of DNA viruses that includes hepatitis viruses. Key points include:
- Hepadnaviridae have an icosahedral nucleocapsid made of protein and a double-stranded DNA genome enclosed in a lipid envelope.
- Hepatitis B virus (HBV) has a circular, partially double-stranded DNA genome that is unusual in organization.
- HBV can be transmitted through bodily fluids and causes symptoms like loss of appetite, nausea, and jaundice. Treatment includes antiviral drugs and vaccines.
This document discusses techniques for purifying viruses, specifically density gradient centrifugation and isopycnic centrifugation. Density gradient centrifugation separates particles based on their buoyant densities by layering solutions of decreasing density in a centrifuge tube, then centrifuging the virus sample on top for a short time. This allows different viruses to separate into discrete zones based on their sedimentation rates. Isopycnic centrifugation forms the density gradient during a long, high-speed centrifugation, allowing separation of particles that differ slightly in density but not size. Precipitation with ammonium sulfate or ethanol can also be used to purify viruses.
Paramyxoviruses are larger RNA viruses that have a single piece of RNA genome and are not liable to antigenic variation. They include parainfluenza virus, mumps virus, measles virus, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Parainfluenza viruses cause respiratory infections in children and adults. Mumps virus causes mumps or parotitis disease of childhood and can lead to complications like meningitis. Measles virus causes a highly infectious childhood disease and RSV is a major cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonitis in infants under 6 months old. These viruses are diagnosed through direct demonstration of viral antigens, virus isolation, and serological tests.
The document discusses different types of culture media used for industrial fermentation. There are natural/crude media which use biological sources like tissue extracts. Synthetic/artificial media use defined chemical compounds and are grouped into serum-containing, serum-free, chemically defined, and protein-free. Enrichment media add specific growth substances to basal media. Selective media contain antimicrobials or dyes to inhibit unwanted microorganisms and support growth of target organisms. Examples given are EMB agar and Mannitol Salt agar.
CaMV Genome organization & their replication, Cauliflower Mosaic Virus belong to Group VII (ds-DNA-RT), Open circular double stranded DNA of 80kb and CaMV replicates by reverse transcription
Industrial centrifuges separate or purify large quantities of materials using centrifugal force. They spin samples at high speeds to separate components based on density, size, or shape. There are three main types - decanter, filter, and sedimentation centrifuges. Decanter centrifuges continuously separate solids from liquids or two immiscible liquids. Filter centrifuges retain particulates while allowing liquid to pass through. Sedimentation centrifuges accumulate solids around the bowl wall while liquid exits through an output passage. Industrial centrifuges are used across industries such as fuel processing, water treatment, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, mining, and food/dairy processing.
Flotation is a separation technique used in downstream processing to purify minerals from an ore mixture. It works by selectively attaching air bubbles to the surfaces of desired minerals using chemicals, causing them to float to the top while heavier unwanted minerals remain suspended below. The process involves conditioning the ore, feeding it into a flotation cell with aeration, and collecting the froth containing concentrated valuable minerals separated from waste material. Flotation offers high selectivity, scalability, and recovery rates but requires optimization and incurs costs associated with reagents and froth handling.
This document discusses downstream processing techniques used in biopharmaceutical industries. It describes downstream processing as purifying and concentrating target products from biological mixtures after fermentation or cell culture. The key steps include cell harvesting, disruption, clarification, purification using techniques like chromatography, concentration, and formulation. Filtration is commonly used for clarification, pre-purification, and polishing. Specific filtration techniques discussed include surface filtration, depth filtration, centrifugal filtration, and rotating drum vacuum filtration.
Pox viruses can be diagnosed clinically or through laboratory tests. Common symptoms include fever, characteristic raised skin lesions that progress to fluid-filled blisters and pus-filled pustules usually appearing on the face and extremities. Swollen lymph nodes and general symptoms like muscle aches and fatigue may also be present. Travel history and animal contact can provide clues to the specific virus. Polymerase chain reaction testing of lesions or body fluids is the most sensitive method to detect poxvirus DNA. Virus isolation grows the virus for identification but takes longer. Electron microscopy can visualize virus particles less sensitively than PCR.
Parvoviruses are a diverse group of small DNA viruses that infect humans and animals. They include canine parvovirus which infects dogs and causes parvo, feline panleukopenia virus which infects cats, B19 parvovirus which causes fifth disease in humans, and rodent parvoviruses which infect rodents. Parvoviruses are categorized as either autonomous, which can replicate independently, or dependoviruses which require coinfection with another virus like adenovirus.
1. Parvovirus B19 causes a range of clinical manifestations from asymptomatic infection to transient erythroblastopenia or aplastic crisis depending on the host's immune status and underlying medical conditions.
2. The virus binds to the P blood group antigen receptor on erythroid progenitor cells and causes their lysis, resulting in transient red cell aplasia. This causes a temporary anemia in healthy individuals but can cause a severe aplastic crisis in those with hemolytic anemia.
3. Diagnosis involves detecting B19 viral DNA by PCR or antibodies such as IgM, which indicates a current infection, and IgG which persists for life after infection and confers immunity.
Arboviruses are a group of viruses transmitted by arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks. They cause a wide range of diseases from mild fevers to serious encephalitis. There are three main families of arboviruses: Flaviviridae which includes yellow fever, dengue, Zika, and West Nile viruses; Togaviridae which includes chikungunya and equine encephalitis viruses; and Bunyaviridae which includes Rift Valley fever and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Arboviruses are transmitted via arthropod bites and their transmission can be seasonal depending on climate and vector life cycles. Prevention includes avoiding bites, vaccination, and vector control.
Coronaviruses are enveloped viruses with distinctive spike proteins that give them a crown-like appearance. They can infect humans and animals, causing respiratory and gastrointestinal illness. SARS-CoV-2 is the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. It spreads efficiently between people and has caused a global pandemic. COVID-19 symptoms range from mild to severe, and complications can include pneumonia, respiratory failure, blood clots, and organ damage. Diagnosis involves molecular tests, antigen tests, imaging, and clinical evaluation.
Rhabdoviruses are enveloped viruses with bullet-shaped particles that contain single-stranded RNA. They replicate by entering host cells and using their RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their genome. New virus particles then bud from the host cell. Rhabdoviruses can infect many species and are transmitted by arthropods or bites. Rabies virus causes fatal neurological disease in humans and other mammals by traveling along nerves to the brain. It evades immunity and commonly causes fear of water, paralysis, and death from respiratory failure. Diagnosis involves clinical evaluation, exposure history, and fluorescent antibody or PCR testing of brain or saliva samples.
The rubella virus causes German measles and belongs to the Togaviridae family. It is a small, enveloped RNA virus that is highly contagious and spreads through respiratory droplets. Rubella infection typically causes a mild illness in children and adults characterized by fever, rash, and lymphadenopathy. However, infection during pregnancy can lead to congenital rubella syndrome in the fetus, resulting in birth defects. Rubella is diagnosed through clinical evaluation, patient history, and serological tests. It can be prevented through vaccination with the MMR or MMRV vaccines.
A nosocomial infection, also known as a healthcare-associated infection, is an infection acquired by a patient during their stay in a healthcare facility like a hospital or nursing home, rather than being present or incubating upon admission. These infections can affect various parts of the body and be caused by a variety of microorganisms. They are transmitted through direct contact or airborne routes and pose increased risks of health complications, prolonged hospitalization, and mortality for patients. Preventing nosocomial infections requires rigorous infection control measures in healthcare settings.
The Hospital Infection Control Committee (HICC) is responsible for preventing and managing infections within healthcare facilities. The HICC is composed of healthcare professionals from various disciplines who work together to develop infection control policies, educate staff, monitor infections, and ensure regulatory compliance. Key duties of the HICC include creating protocols for hand hygiene, outbreak management, and antimicrobial stewardship programs to safeguard patients, workers, and visitors from healthcare-associated infections.
Antiviral agents work by interfering with different stages of the viral lifecycle such as attachment, entry, replication, and release. There are several classes of antiviral drugs that target specific viral processes including entry inhibitors, nucleoside/nucleotide analogues, protease inhibitors, polymerase inhibitors, and neuraminidase inhibitors. While antiviral drugs aim to disrupt viral replication selectively, they can cause side effects like gastrointestinal issues, fatigue, headaches, and liver/kidney problems. Viruses may also develop resistance to antiviral medications over time through genetic mutations.
These toxins damage the blood. Some examples that damage red blood cells include E. coli verotoxin which destroys red blood cells and causes kidney damage, and Vibrio vulnificus toxin which destroys tissue and causes inflammation. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus disrupts blood clotting and causes toxic shock syndrome through inflammation. Hemotoxins damage the blood through mechanisms such as disrupting clotting, destroying red blood cells, and other harmful effects.
Testing the Son of God Hypothesis (Jesus Christ)Robert Luk
Instead of answering the God hypothesis, we investigate the Son of God hypothesis. We developed our own methodology to deal with existential statements instead of universal statements unlike science. We discuss the existence of the supernaturals and found that there are strong evidence for it. Given that supernatural exists, we report on miracles investigated in the past related to the Son of God. A Bayesian methodology is used to calculate the combined degree of belief of the Son of God Hypothesis. We also report the testing of occurrences of words/numbers in the Bible to suggest the likelihood of some special numbers occurring, supporting the Son of God Hypothesis. We also have a table showing the past occurrences of miracles in hundred year periods for about 1000 years. Miracles that we have looked at include Shroud of Turin, Eucharistic Miracles, Marian Apparitions, Incorruptible Corpses, etc.
Keys of Identification for Indian Wood: A Seminar ReportGurjant Singh
Identifying Indian wood involves recognizing key characteristics such as grain patterns, color, texture, hardness, and specific anatomical features. These identification keys include observing the wood's pores, growth rings, and resin canals, as well as its scent and weight. Understanding these features is essential for accurate wood identification, which is crucial for various applications in carpentry, furniture making, and conservation.
Additionally, the application of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) in wood identification has revolutionized this field. CNNs can analyze images of wood samples to identify species with high accuracy by learning and recognizing intricate patterns and features. This technological advancement not only enhances the precision of wood identification but also accelerates the process, making it more efficient for industry professionals and researchers alike.
Deploying DAPHNE Computational Intelligence on EuroHPC Vega for Benchmarking ...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda, Mark Dokter:
Deploying DAPHNE Computational Intelligence on EuroHPC Vega for Benchmarking Randomised Optimisation Algorithms.
2024 International Conference on Broadband Communications for Next Generation Networks and Multimedia Applications (CoBCom), 9--11 July 2024, Graz, Austria
https://www.cobcom.tugraz.at/
El Nuevo Cohete Ariane de la Agencia Espacial Europea-6_Media-Kit_english.pdfChamps Elysee Roldan
Europe must have autonomous access to space to realise its ambitions on the world stage and
promote knowledge and prosperity.
Space is a natural extension of our home planet and forms an integral part of the infrastructure
that is vital to daily life on Earth. Europe must assert its rightful place in space to ensure its
citizens thrive.
As the world’s second-largest economy, Europe must ensure it has secure and autonomous access to
space, so it does not depend on the capabilities and priorities of other nations.
Europe’s longstanding expertise in launching spacecraft and satellites has been a driving force behind
its 60 years of successful space cooperation.
In a world where everyday life – from connectivity to navigation, climate and weather – relies on
space, the ability to launch independently is more important than ever before. With the launch of
Ariane 6, Europe is not just sending a rocket into the sky, we are asserting our place among the
world’s spacefaring nations.
ESA’s Ariane 6 rocket succeeds Ariane 5, the most dependable and competitive launcher for decades.
The first Ariane rocket was launched in 1979 from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana and Ariane 6 will continue the adventure.
Putting Europe at the forefront of space transportation for nearly 45 years, Ariane is a triumph of engineering and the prize of great European industrial and political
cooperation. Ariane 1 gave way to more powerful versions 2, 3 and 4. Ariane 5 served as one of the world’s premier heavy-lift rockets, putting single or multiple
payloads into orbit – the cargo and instruments being launched – and sent a series of iconic scientific missions to deep space.
The decision to start developing Ariane 6 was taken in 2014 to respond to the continued need to have independent access to space, while offering efficient
commercial launch services in a fast-changing market.
ESA, with its Member States and industrial partners led by ArianeGroup, is developing new technologies for new markets with Ariane 6. The versatility of Ariane 6
adds a whole new dimension to its very successful predecessors
A slightly oblate dark matter halo revealed by a retrograde precessing Galact...Sérgio Sacani
The shape of the dark matter (DM) halo is key to understanding the
hierarchical formation of the Galaxy. Despite extensive eforts in recent
decades, however, its shape remains a matter of debate, with suggestions
ranging from strongly oblate to prolate. Here, we present a new constraint
on its present shape by directly measuring the evolution of the Galactic
disk warp with time, as traced by accurate distance estimates and precise
age determinations for about 2,600 classical Cepheids. We show that the
Galactic warp is mildly precessing in a retrograde direction at a rate of
ω = −2.1 ± 0.5 (statistical) ± 0.6 (systematic) km s−1 kpc−1 for the outer disk
over the Galactocentric radius [7.5, 25] kpc, decreasing with radius. This
constrains the shape of the DM halo to be slightly oblate with a fattening
(minor axis to major axis ratio) in the range 0.84 ≤ qΦ ≤ 0.96. Given the
young nature of the disk warp traced by Cepheids (less than 200 Myr), our
approach directly measures the shape of the present-day DM halo. This
measurement, combined with other measurements from older tracers,
could provide vital constraints on the evolution of the DM halo and the
assembly history of the Galaxy.
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE.pptximansiipandeyy
This presentation, "Introduction to Forensic Science," offers a basic understanding of forensic science, including its history, why it's needed, and its main goals. It covers how forensic science helps solve crimes and its importance in the justice system. By the end, you'll have a clear idea of what forensic science is and why it's essential.
Molecular biology of abiotic stress tolerence in plantsrushitahakik1
### Molecular Biology of Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants
Abiotic stress refers to the non-living environmental factors that can cause significant harm to plants, including drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, heavy metals, and oxidative stress. Understanding the molecular biology underlying abiotic stress tolerance is crucial for developing crops that can withstand these conditions, ensuring food security in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. Here, we explore the key molecular mechanisms, pathways, and genetic strategies plants use to cope with abiotic stress.
#### 1. Signal Perception and Transduction
**1.1. Signal Perception:**
Plants possess various sensors and receptors to detect abiotic stress signals. For instance, membrane-bound receptors such as receptor-like kinases (RLKs) and ion channels play critical roles in sensing changes in environmental conditions.
**1.2. Signal Transduction Pathways:**
Upon sensing abiotic stress, plants activate complex signal transduction pathways that involve:
- **Calcium Signaling:** Changes in cytosolic calcium levels act as secondary messengers. Calcium-binding proteins, such as calmodulins (CaMs) and calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs), decode these signals and activate downstream responses.
- **Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Signaling:** ROS are produced under stress and function as signaling molecules. Controlled ROS production is crucial for activating defense mechanisms, while excessive ROS can cause cellular damage.
- **Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Cascades:** These cascades amplify the stress signal and regulate the expression of stress-responsive genes.
#### 2. Transcriptional Regulation
**2.1. Transcription Factors (TFs):**
TFs are pivotal in regulating the expression of genes involved in stress responses. Key TF families include:
- **AP2/ERF (APETALA2/ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR):** Involved in drought and salinity tolerance.
- **NAC (NAM, ATAF, and CUC):** Play roles in responding to dehydration and high salinity.
- **bZIP (Basic Leucine Zipper):** Associated with responses to various stresses, including drought and oxidative stress.
- **WRKY:** Participate in the regulation of genes involved in stress responses and pathogen defense.
**2.2. Epigenetic Regulation:**
Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and chromatin remodeling, influence gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. These modifications can lead to the activation or repression of stress-responsive genes.
#### 3. Stress-Responsive Genes and Proteins
**3.1. Osmoprotectants:**
Plants accumulate osmoprotectants like proline, glycine betaine, and sugars (e.g., trehalose) to maintain cellular osmotic balance under stress conditions.
**3.2. Antioxidant Defense:**
To mitigate oxidative stress, plants enhance the production of antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidases, which scavenge harmful ROS.
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Possible Anthropogenic Contributions to the LAMP-observed Surficial Icy Regol...Sérgio Sacani
This work assesses the potential of midsized and large human landing systems to deliver water from their exhaust
plumes to cold traps within lunar polar craters. It has been estimated that a total of between 2 and 60 T of surficial
water was sensed by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Lyman Alpha Mapping Project on the floors of the larger
permanently shadowed south polar craters. This intrinsic surficial water sensed in the far-ultraviolet is thought to be
in the form of a 0.3%–2% icy regolith in the top few hundred nanometers of the surface. We find that the six past
Apollo Lunar Module midlatitude landings could contribute no more than 0.36 T of water mass to this existing,
intrinsic surficial water in permanently shadowed regions (PSRs). However, we find that the Starship landing
plume has the potential, in some cases, to deliver over 10 T of water to the PSRs, which is a substantial fraction
(possibly >20%) of the existing intrinsic surficial water mass. This anthropogenic contribution could possibly
overlay and mix with the naturally occurring icy regolith at the uppermost surface. A possible consequence is that
the origin of the intrinsic surficial icy regolith, which is still undetermined, could be lost as it mixes with the
extrinsic anthropogenic contribution. We suggest that existing and future orbital and landed assets be used to
examine the effect of polar landers on the cold traps within PSRs
Ethical considerations play a crucial role in research, ensuring the protection of participants and the integrity of the study. Here are some subject-specific ethical issues that researchers need
1. Comparison of RNA Virus
Virus Viral
Structur
e
Envelope
d
Envelope
Structur
e
Size (nm) Genome
Size (kb)
Genome
Structur
e
Genome
Organiza
tion
Orthomy
xovirus
Spherical Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
hemagglu
tinin and
neuramin
idase
proteins
80-120 13-18 Segmente
d (8
single-
stranded
(-) RNA
segments
)
Each
segment
codes for
a separate
protein
Paramyx
ovirus
Pleomorp
hic
Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
fusion (F)
and
attachme
nt (HN)
proteins
150-300 15-19 Single-
stranded
(-) RNA,
non-
segmente
d
Linear
order of
genes
Rubella
Virus
Spherical Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
hemagglu
tinin-
neuramin
idase
(E2)
proteins
50-70 13 Single-
stranded
(-) RNA,
non-
segmente
d
Linear
order of
genes
Arboviru
s
Spherical Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
specific
40-70 10-12 Single-
stranded
(+) RNA,
non-
Linear
order of
genes
2. glycoprot
eins
dependin
g on the
virus
(e.g.,
Flaviviru
s E
envelope
protein)
segmente
d
Rhabdov
irus
Bullet-
shaped
Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
single
glycoprot
ein spike
(G
protein)
70-180 13-15 Single-
stranded
(-) RNA,
non-
segmente
d
Linear
order of
genes
Hantavir
us
Spherical Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
specific
glycoprot
eins for
cell
attachme
nt and
fusion
(G1, G2
proteins)
80-120 34-36 Tripartite
single-
stranded
(-) RNA
L
segment -
RNA-
dependen
t RNA
polymera
se, S
segment -
nucleoca
psid
protein,
M
segment -
envelope
glycoprot
eins
Picornav
irus
Icosahedr
al
No N/A 25-30 7-8 Single-
stranded
(+) RNA,
non-
Polycistr
onic
RNA
with
3. segmente
d
internal
ribosome
entry
sites
(IRES)
Coronavi
rus
Pleomorp
hic
Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
spike (S)
protein
for
receptor
binding
and
fusion
120-160 27-32 Single-
stranded
(+) RNA,
non-
segmente
d
5' and 3'
untranslat
ed
regions
(UTRs)
flanking
genes
HIV Icosahedr
al
Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
envelope
(Env)
protein
trimers
containin
g gp120
and gp41
subunits
100-120 9.7 Single-
stranded
(+) RNA,
dimeric
(2
identical
copies)
5' and 3'
LTRs
flanking
gag, pol,
env, rev,
tat, nef
genes
Hepatitis
Virus
Spherical Yes Lipid
bilayer
with
specific
envelope
proteins
dependin
g on the
virus
(e.g.,
Hepatitis
30-40 3.5-4.2 Single-
stranded
(+) RNA,
non-
segmente
d
Circular
4. B surface
antigen)
Comparison of Replication Stages for RNA Viruses:
Here's a breakdown of the key replication stages for the RNA viruses you requested:
Virus Entry Uncoatin
g
Genome
replicati
on
Transcri
ption
Translati
on
Assembl
y
Release
Orthomy
xovirus
Sialic
acid
receptor-
mediated
endocyto
sis
Fusion
with
endosom
al
membran
e
Transcrip
tion and
replicatio
n in
nucleus
mRNA
capped
and
polyaden
ylated
Nuclear
and
cytoplas
mic
translatio
n
Budding
from
Golgi
apparatus
Envelope
acquisitio
n
Paramyx
ovirus
Sialic
acid
receptor-
mediated
endocyto
sis
Fusion
with
endosom
al
membran
e
Transcrip
tion and
replicatio
n in
cytoplas
m
mRNA
capped
and
polyaden
ylated
Cytoplas
mic
translatio
n
Budding
from
Golgi
apparatus
Envelope
acquisitio
n
Rubella
Virus
Heparan
sulfate
receptor-
mediated
endocyto
sis
Fusion
with
endosom
al
membran
e
Replicati
on in
cytoplas
m
mRNA
capped
and
polyaden
ylated
Cytoplas
mic
translatio
n
Budding
from
Golgi
apparatus
Envelope
acquisitio
n
6. and
corecepto
r binding,
fusion
with
plasma
membran
e
cytoplas
m
ion into
DNA,
integratio
n into
host
genome
host RNA
polymera
se II
host
ribosome
s
cytoplas
m
plasma
membran
e
Hepatitis
Virus
(Hepatiti
s C)
Receptor-
mediated
endocyto
sis
Uncoatin
g in
cytoplas
m
Replicati
on in
cytoplas
m
Internal
ribosome
entry
sites
(IRES)
for
translatio
n
Cytoplas
mic
translatio
n
Assembly
in
endoplas
mic
reticulum
(ER)
Envelope
acquisitio
n from
ER
Comparison of Replication Stages for RNA Viruses with
Attachment Mechanism:
Virus Attach
ment
Mechan
ism
Entry Uncoati
ng
Genom
e
replicat
ion
Transcr
iption
Transla
tion
Assemb
ly
Release
Orthom
yxovirus
Sialic
acid
receptor
(hemagg
lutinin
protein)
Endocyt
osis
Fusion
with
endoso
mal
membra
ne
Transcri
ption
and
replicati
on in
nucleus
mRNA
capped
and
polyade
nylated
Nuclear
and
cytoplas
mic
translati
on
Budding
from
Golgi
apparatu
s
Envelop
e
acquisiti
on
9. or
CCR5)
Hepatiti
s Virus
(Hepati
tis C)
Specific
cell
surface
receptor
s (e.g.,
scaveng
er
receptor
class B
1)
Endocyt
osis
Uncoati
ng in
cytoplas
m
Replicat
ion in
cytoplas
m
IRES
for
translati
on
Cytopla
smic
translati
on
Assembl
y in ER
Envelop
e
acquisiti
on from
ER and
Golgi
Comparison of Epidemiology of RNA Viruses:
Virus Reservoir Transmissi
on
Geographi
c
Distributio
n
Clinical
Disease
Seasonalit
y
Notable
Examples
Orthomyx
ovirus
(Influenza
virus)
Birds,
humans
Respiratory
droplets,
aerosols
Worldwide Influenza
(flu),
ranging
from mild
to severe
respiratory
illness
Winter
(temperate
regions)
Influenza
A, B, and
C
Paramyxo
virus
(Measles,
mumps,
parainflue
nza virus)
Humans Respiratory
droplets
Worldwide Measles
(highly
contagious,
can lead to
pneumonia,
encephaliti
s), mumps
(parotid
Spring
(measles),
year-round
(mumps,
parainfluen
za)
Measles
virus,
Mumps
virus,
Parainfluen
za viruses
1-4
10. gland
swelling),
parainfluen
za
(respiratory
illness,
common in
children)
Rubella
Virus
Humans Respiratory
droplets
Worldwide Rubella
(mild rash,
can cause
birth
defects if
contracted
during
pregnancy)
Spring Rubella
virus
Arbovirus
(Dengue,
Zika, West
Nile virus)
Mosquitoes
, other
arthropods
Mosquito
bite
Tropical
and
subtropical
regions
Dengue
fever (flu-
like illness,
can
progress to
severe
forms),
Zika virus
(linked to
birth
defects),
West Nile
virus
(encephaliti
s)
Varies
depending
on the virus
Dengue
virus, Zika
virus, West
Nile virus
Rhabdovir
us (Rabies
virus)
Bats,
carnivores
Saliva
through
bites
Worldwide Rabies
(fatal
neurologica
l disease)
Year-round Rabies
virus
11. Hantaviru
s
(Hantavir
us
pulmonary
syndrome)
Rodents Inhalation
of
aerosolized
rodent
excreta
Worldwide Hantavirus
pulmonary
syndrome
(severe
respiratory
illness)
Year-round Hantavirus
Sin
Nombre
(Americas)
, Hantaan
virus
(Asia)
Picornavir
us
(Poliovirus
,
enteroviru
s,
rhinovirus
)
Humans Fecal-oral
route,
respiratory
droplets
Worldwide Polio
(paralytic
disease),
enterovirus
infections
(hand, foot
and mouth
disease,
conjunctivi
tis),
rhinovirus
infections
(common
cold)
Varies
depending
on the virus
Poliovirus,
Enterovirus
71,
Rhinovirus
Coronavir
us (SARS-
CoV-2,
MERS-
CoV)
Bats,
humans
(for SARS-
CoV-2)
Respiratory
droplets,
aerosols
Worldwide COVID-19
(respiratory
illness, can
range from
mild to
severe),
Middle
East
respiratory
syndrome
(MERS)
Year-round SARS-
CoV-2,
MERS-
CoV
HIV Humans Bodily
fluids
(blood,
semen,
Worldwide HIV
infection,
AIDS
(acquired
immunodef
Year-round HIV-1,
HIV-2
12. vaginal
fluids)
iciency
syndrome)
Hepatitis
Virus
(Hepatitis
A, B, C)
Humans
(Hepatitis
A), humans
(Hepatitis
B), humans
(Hepatitis
C)
Fecal-oral
route
(Hepatitis
A), blood
and bodily
fluids
(Hepatitis
B), blood
and bodily
fluids
(Hepatitis
C)
Worldwide
(Hepatitis
A, B),
predomina
ntly
developing
countries
(Hepatitis
C)
Hepatitis
(inflammati
on of the
liver), can
lead to
cirrhosis
and liver
cancer
Year-round Hepatitis A
virus,
Hepatitis B
virus,
Hepatitis C
virus
Comparison of Diagnosis Methods for RNA Viruses:
Virus Symptoms Common Diagnostic
Tests
Additional Tests
Orthomyxovirus
(Influenza virus)
Fever, cough, sore
throat, muscle aches,
runny nose
Rapid influenza
diagnostic test
(RIDT): Detects viral
antigens directly from
respiratory secretions.
Viral culture:
Confirms specific
influenza strain, may
take longer.
Paramyxovirus
(Measles, mumps,
parainfluenza virus)
Measles: Fever, rash,
cough, conjunctivitis;
Mumps: Swollen
parotid glands, fever;
Parainfluenza:
Respiratory
symptoms
IgM antibody
test:Detects recent
infection by
identifying IgM
antibodies.
IgG antibody test:
Detects past infection
by identifying IgG
antibodies. Viral
culture (measles,
mumps) or PCR
(parainfluenza) for
confirmation.
13. Rubella Virus Mild rash, fever,
swollen lymph nodes
IgM antibody
test:Detects recent
infection.
IgG antibody test:
Detects past infection.
PCR may be used for
confirmation in
specific cases.
Arbovirus (Dengue,
Zika, West Nile
virus)
Varies depending on
the virus (fever,
headache, rash,
muscle aches, etc.)
IgM antibody
test:Detects recent
infection.
PCR test: Detects
viral RNA for rapid
diagnosis and specific
strain identification.
Viral culture can
confirm infection but
takes longer.
Rhabdovirus
(Rabies virus)
Flu-like symptoms
progressing to
neurological decline
Fluorescent
antibody test
(FAT):Detects viral
antigen in brain tissue
or saliva (post-
mortem).
PCR test: Detects
viral RNA in saliva or
cerebrospinal fluid.
Hantavirus
(Hantavirus
pulmonary
syndrome)
Fever, muscle aches,
fatigue, followed by
severe respiratory
distress
Enzyme-linked
immunosorbent
assay
(ELISA):Detects
IgM antibodies for
recent infection.
PCR test: Detects
viral RNA for rapid
diagnosis. Serological
tests can confirm past
infection later.
Picornavirus
(Poliovirus,
enterovirus,
rhinovirus)
Varies depending on
the virus (fever,
respiratory
symptoms, rash, etc.)
Viral culture:Isolates
and identifies specific
virus.
PCR test: Detects
viral RNA for rapid
diagnosis of some
viruses (e.g.,
enterovirus 71).
Serological tests may
be used for specific
viruses (e.g.,
poliovirus).
14. Coronavirus (SARS-
CoV-2, MERS-CoV)
Varies depending on
the virus (fever,
cough, fatigue, etc.)
PCR test: Detects
viral RNA from
respiratory secretions
for rapid diagnosis.
Antibody tests: IgM
and IgG tests can
detect recent and past
infection, but timing
is crucial for
interpretation.
HIV Initially flu-like
symptoms,
progressing to
chronic immune
suppression
Rapid HIV
tests:Detect HIV
antibodies or antigens
for quick screening.
Confirmatory HIV
tests: ELISA and
Western blot to
confirm HIV
infection and
differentiate between
HIV-1 and HIV-2.
Hepatitis Virus
(Hepatitis A, B, C)
Varies depending on
the virus (fatigue,
nausea, jaundice, etc.)
Liver function
tests:Assess liver
damage.
Serological tests:
Detect viral antigens
or antibodies for
specific viruses
(Hepatitis A
IgM/IgG, Hepatitis B
surface
antigen/antibody,
Hepatitis C antibody).
Viral load testing for
Hepatitis B and C to
monitor infection and
treatment response.
Comparison of Prevention and Treatment for RNA Viruses:
Virus Prevention Treatment
Orthomyxovirus (Influenza
virus)
Vaccination: Annual
influenza vaccine
Antiviral medications:
Oseltamivir, zanamivir, etc.,
can shorten illness duration
15. recommended for most
people.
and severity if taken early.
Supportive care (rest, fluids)
is crucial.
Paramyxovirus (Measles,
mumps, parainfluenza
virus)
Vaccination: MMR vaccine
protects against all three
viruses.
Measles: Supportive care.
Mumps: Supportive care,
antiviral medications may be
used in some cases.
Parainfluenza: No specific
treatment, supportive care is
key.
Rubella Virus Vaccination: MMR vaccine
protects against measles,
mumps, and rubella.
No specific treatment:
Supportive care (rest, fluids)
is recommended.
Arbovirus (Dengue, Zika,
West Nile virus)
Mosquito bite prevention:
Use insect repellent, wear
long sleeves and pants, use
mosquito nets.
Vaccination:Available for
some arboviruses (e.g.,
yellow fever, Japanese
encephalitis).
No specific treatment:
Supportive care (rest, fluids,
pain management) is crucial.
Antiviral medications may be
used for some viruses (e.g.,
dengue).
Rhabdovirus (Rabies virus) Vaccination: Pre-exposure
prophylaxis (PrEP) for high-
risk individuals, post-
exposure prophylaxis (PEP)
for anyone potentially
exposed.
No specific treatment: Once
symptoms develop, rabies is
almost always fatal. PEP is
critical to prevent
progression.
Hantavirus (Hantavirus
pulmonary syndrome)
Rodent control measures:
Avoid contact with rodents
and their droppings.
Supportive care: Oxygen
therapy, mechanical
ventilation, and other
measures to manage
respiratory failure. No
16. specific antiviral treatment
available.
Picornavirus (Poliovirus,
enterovirus, rhinovirus)
Vaccination: Polio vaccine
protects against poliovirus.
No vaccines for most
enteroviruses or rhinoviruses.
Polio: Supportive care,
physical therapy may be
needed for paralysis.
Enterovirus: Supportive
care, antiviral medications
may be used for some viruses
(e.g., enterovirus 71).
Rhinovirus: No specific
treatment, supportive care is
recommended.
Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2,
MERS-CoV)
Vaccination: Several
COVID-19 vaccines are
available, offering varying
degrees of protection against
severe illness and
hospitalization. No vaccine
for MERS-CoV.
SARS-CoV-2: Antiviral
medications, corticosteroids,
oxygen therapy, and other
supportive measures
depending on the severity of
illness. No specific cure
exists. MERS-CoV:
Supportive care is the
mainstay of treatment, with
limited evidence for specific
antiviral benefits.
HIV Safer sex practices: Use
condoms consistently and
correctly. Pre-exposure
prophylaxis (PrEP):
Antiviral medication can
significantly reduce HIV
acquisition risk.
Antiretroviral therapy
(ART): Combination of
medications that suppress
HIV replication, allowing the
immune system to recover
and preventing transmission.
Early initiation and adherence
are crucial.
Hepatitis Virus (Hepatitis
A, B, C)
Hepatitis A:
Vaccination:Recommended
for most people. Hepatitis B:
Vaccination: Highly
effective in preventing
Hepatitis A: Supportive care
(rest, fluids). Hepatitis B: No
specific treatment for acute
infection, but chronic
infection may require
17. infection. Hepatitis C: No
vaccine available.
antiviral medications.
Hepatitis C: Antiviral
medications can cure most
chronic infections.