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The Chemical Revolution

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John Lynch
John Lynch

The document summarizes the Chemical Revolution led by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. It overthrew the phlogiston theory of combustion and replaced it with the modern oxygen theory. Key events included Lavoisier's experiments disproving phlogiston, his naming of oxygen, development of modern chemical nomenclature and conservation of mass law. The revolution transformed chemistry into a quantitative science and established many foundations of modern chemistry."

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The Chemical Revolution
Jacques-Louis David, “Portrait of M. Lavoisier and his Wife” 1788
Gasometer Mercury tube Hales device Glass flask Brass hydrometer Manuscript Artists portfolio
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 1743 – 1794 Began publishing chemical studies in 1764 Member of the French Academy of Sciences (1768) Worked on first geological map of France (1769, w/ Jean-Ettiene Guettard)
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 1743 – 1794 Member of the Ferme Générale (1768 – ‘91) Director of the Gunpowder Administration (1775) Director of the Discount Bank (1788) Appointed to the Royal Treasury (1790 – ‘91)
Jean-Paul Marat 1743 – 1793 Physician shown to be a scientific charlatan by Lavoisier in 1779. Developed an animosity towards the Academy in general and Lavoisier in particular. “Man has the right to deal with his oppressors by devouring their palpitating hearts.”
Mesmerism Anton Mesmer (supported by Marat) Report of the Commission Charged by the King to Examine Animal Magnetism, 1784
On Probability “The art of drawing conclusions from experiments and observations consists in evaluating probabilities and estimating if they are large and numerous enough to constitute proofs. This type of calculation is more complicated and more difficult that we think; it demands a great sagacity, and is in general beyond the powers of ordinary men.
On Charlatans “It is on their errors in this sort of calculation that the success of charlatans, sorcerers and alchemists is founded; likewise, in other times, that of magicians, enchanters, and in general, all those who have deluded themselves or who seek to abuse public credulity.”
“Father of Modern Chemistry” Demise of phlogiston theory of combustion Modern concepts of element, compound & mixture Production of a table of elements Naming of oxygen and hydrogen Nomenclature Modern methods of chemical analysis, e.g. stoichiometry Principle of “conservation of mass”
Apothecary Gunpowder Doctor “Chemistry” Metallurgist Dyer Alchemist
From Alchemy to Chymistry
Gabriel Venel Chemistry suffered from the lack of an organizing theory and needed someone who could bring about a “revolution” in the science. 1753
The Chemical Revolution
Johann Becher 1635 - 1682 Introduced the idea that there was a substance contained within combustible matter that was released upon combustion (1667)
Johann Becher 1635 - 1682 Earth Water Terra lapidea (fusibility) Terra fluida (fluidity, volatility, metallicity) Terra pinguis (oily, sulphurous, combustibility)
Georg Stahl 1659 - 1734 1697: Introduces the term “phlogiston” for the (nearly) weightless “inflammable principle” Studies its role in combustion and oxidation (“calcination”) Charcoal & oil were rich in phlogiston. Metal = calyx + phlogiston
Georg Stahl 1659 - 1734 Chemical reactions occur by phlogiston transferring from one substance to another. A theory that unified combustion, metabolism, rusting and other phenomena and that explained many facts ...
Such as ... Weight loss when combustibles are burned because they lose phlogiston Fire burns out in an enclosed space because it saturates the air with phlogiston Animals die in an airtight space because the air becomes saturated with phlogiston Some metal calxes turn to metals when heated with charcoal because the phlogiston from the charcoal restores the phlogiston in the metal
Joseph Priestly 1733 – 1804 Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air (1772) Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Airs (1774 – ’86) Discovered “dephlogisticated air” (1774) Member of the Lunar Society
Matthew Boulton James Watt
Josiah Wedgewood Erasmus Darwin
1772: Interest in “airs” Discovered that phosphorous and sulfur gain weight when they are burned. In a private note to the secretary of the Academy, he extends this to all bodies undergoing combustion or calcination.
1772: Crisis Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau shows that all metals gain weight when calcinated (oxidized). But if calcination was explained by the loss of phlogistion from the metal, how could this be?
1773 “The importance of this subject has prompted me once more to undertake all this work, which seemed to me destined to bring about a revolution in physics and chemistry.”
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
Oxygen 1771 – Carl Scheele isolates “fire air” 1774 – Joseph Priestley isolates a new air and visits Lavoisier in Paris to describe his experiments 1775 – Priestly names “dephlogisticated air” 1776 – Lavoisier repeats Priestley’s experiments 1777 – Scheele’s Treatise on Air & Fire published.
The Chemical Revolution
1777 “I shall henceforth designate dephlogisticated air ... by the name of the acidifying principle, or, if one prefers the same signification in a Greek word, by that of oxygen principle.”
Death of Phlogiston Lavoisier publishes his “Memoir on Combustion in General” (1777). He uses Priestley’s original experiments on oxygen, combustion and water against the theory of phlogiston, and shows that combustion required the presence of oxygen. Priestly responds in “Experiments relating to Phlogiston” (1783) and “Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston” (1796).
Richard Kirwan 1733 – 1812 Fellow of the Royal Society President of the Royal Irish Academy. Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids (1787) Also opposed Hutton’s theory of the Earth
Hydrogen First produced by the 16th century alchemist Paracelsus 1671: Re-discovered by Robert Boyle 1766: Called “inflammable air” by Henry Cavendish 1783: Called “hydrogen” by Lavoisier after he and Simon LaPlace replicate Cavendish’s experiments.
Henry Cavendish 1731 – 1810 Made “inflammable air” by combining metals and strong acids. Discovered that when it was mixed with “dephlogisticated air,” water resulted. Discovered that 79.167% of the atmosphere is “phlogisticated” and 20.8333% “dephlogisticated”
Henry Cavendish 1731 – 1810 Independently discovered (but never published): Ohm’s Law Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures Coulomb’s Law Charles’ Law of Gases
Nomenclature “We must clean house thoroughly, for they have made use of an enigmatical language peculiar to themselves, which in general presents one meaning for the adepts and another meaning for the vulgar, and at the same time contains nothing that is rationally intelligible either for the one or for the other.”
Nomenclature Étienne Bonnot de Condillac’s claim that “the art of reasoning depends on a well-made language.” He also had learned Linnaean nomenclature. 1787: Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature). Tied to his theoretical concerns
Traité Élémentaire de Chimie 1789 Emphatically rejected phlogiston and outlined the oxygen theory of combustion. Defined an element as a substance that cannot be broken down further by any known method. Defined compounds as combinations of two or more elements – example of water. Outline theory of radicals (combinations of elements that work together) Clearly stated the Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass Conservation “Wrongly do the Greeks suppose that aught begins or ceases to be; for nothing comes into being or is destroyed; but all is an aggregation or secretion of pre-existing things; so that all becoming might more correctly be called becoming mixed, and all corruption, becoming separate.” (Anaxagoras, c450 BCE) “The sum total of things was always such as it is now, and such it will ever remain” (Epicurus, 341-270 BCE) “A body of matter cannot disappear completely. It only changes its form, condition, composition, color and other properties and turns into a different complex or elementary matter.” (Tusi, 1201 – 1274 CE)
Mass Conservation “Nothing is created, either in the operations of art or in those of nature, and it may be considered as a general principle that in every operation there exists an equal quantity of matter before and after the operation; that the quality and quantity of the constituents is the same, and that what happens is only changes, modifications. It is on this principle that is founded all the art of performing chemical experiments; in all such must be assumed a true equality or equation between constituents of the substances examined, and those resulting from their analysis.”
Further Work Introduction of the metric system Drawing of vertical cross- sections to represent stratigraphic order. Studies of transpiration and respiration
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze 1758 – 1836 Father was member of Ferme Générale Married Lavoisier in 1771 Served as Lavoisier’s assistant, illustrator, and translator (English & Latin) Translated Kirwan’s Essay on Phlogiston for publication and the works of Cavendish & Priestley (for Lavoisier’s own use).
Marc-Auguste Pictet “Chemistry, banished until now to a small circle of adepts whose language and ideas were equally obscure, has become the inseparable aide and companion to Physics: these sciences, united and guided by experiment alone, have proceeded at a rapid pace; Chemistry itself has undergone a great revolution, a frightful scaffolding has given way to a simple and illuminating theory, based upon immediate consequences of experiment … Everything indicates that we are on the right path, and that it will lead daily to discoveries in the natural sciences.”
1790 “This then is the revolution which has occurred in an important branch of human knowledge since your departure from Europe; I look upon this revolution as well advanced and it will be complete if you will stand with us”
1791 “All the young scientists adopt the new theory and I thence conclude that the revolution is accomplished in chemistry”
Revolution 1787 – Cavendish abandons phlogiston 1789 – Universal acceptance in France Early 1790’s – Edinburgh & Glasgow 1791 – Kirwan abandons phlogiston 1800 – Spread throughout Europe and on to America
I. Bernard Cohen “Lavosier’s Chemical Revolution passes all the tests for a revolution in science. It has been recognized as a revolution by all historians and scientists, just as it was seen to be a revolution in its own time. Additionally, the whole science of chemistry and its language have followed the lines set forth in the Chemical Revolution. The Chemical Revolution is thus a paradigmatic example of a revolution in science.”
Carleton E. Perrin “The Chemical Revolution is a classic instance of conceptual change in science – one of the first to be foretold. Venel had called for a breakthrough that would exploit the distinctive methods and concepts of chemistry to establish it as the independent peer of physics. … [Lavoisier’s] innovations transformed the structure and language of chemistry, generating a crisis that split the community. Chemistry emerged from the conflict as a more mature discipline with the public recognition Venel had desired.”
1790 “Now that you have been informed as to what has transpired in chemistry, it might be well to speak of our political revolution. We look upon this as accomplished and accomplished irretrievably.”
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
Jacques Louis David “Let them be closed forever, these schools of flattery and servility … In the name of humanity, in the name of justice, and above all for your love of youth, let us destroy – let us annihilate – these deadly academies, which can no longer survive under a free regime.”
Jean-Paul Marat 1791 “I denounce to you the Coryphaeus of the charlatans, Master Lavoisier, son of a land-grabber, apprentice-chemist, pupil of the Genevan stock-jobber Necker, a Farmer General, Commissioner for Gunpowder and Saltpeter, director of the Discount Bank, secretary to the King, member of the Academy of Science, intimate of Vauvilliers, unfaithful administrator of the Paris Food Commission, and the greatest schemer of our times.”
1794
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution
The Chemical Revolution

More Related Content

The Chemical Revolution

  • 2. Jacques-Louis David, “Portrait of M. Lavoisier and his Wife” 1788
  • 3. Gasometer Mercury tube Hales device Glass flask Brass hydrometer Manuscript Artists portfolio
  • 4. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 1743 – 1794 Began publishing chemical studies in 1764 Member of the French Academy of Sciences (1768) Worked on first geological map of France (1769, w/ Jean-Ettiene Guettard)
  • 5. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 1743 – 1794 Member of the Ferme Générale (1768 – ‘91) Director of the Gunpowder Administration (1775) Director of the Discount Bank (1788) Appointed to the Royal Treasury (1790 – ‘91)
  • 6. Jean-Paul Marat 1743 – 1793 Physician shown to be a scientific charlatan by Lavoisier in 1779. Developed an animosity towards the Academy in general and Lavoisier in particular. “Man has the right to deal with his oppressors by devouring their palpitating hearts.”
  • 7. Mesmerism Anton Mesmer (supported by Marat) Report of the Commission Charged by the King to Examine Animal Magnetism, 1784
  • 8. On Probability “The art of drawing conclusions from experiments and observations consists in evaluating probabilities and estimating if they are large and numerous enough to constitute proofs. This type of calculation is more complicated and more difficult that we think; it demands a great sagacity, and is in general beyond the powers of ordinary men.
  • 9. On Charlatans “It is on their errors in this sort of calculation that the success of charlatans, sorcerers and alchemists is founded; likewise, in other times, that of magicians, enchanters, and in general, all those who have deluded themselves or who seek to abuse public credulity.”
  • 10. “Father of Modern Chemistry” Demise of phlogiston theory of combustion Modern concepts of element, compound & mixture Production of a table of elements Naming of oxygen and hydrogen Nomenclature Modern methods of chemical analysis, e.g. stoichiometry Principle of “conservation of mass”
  • 11. Apothecary Gunpowder Doctor “Chemistry” Metallurgist Dyer Alchemist
  • 12. From Alchemy to Chymistry
  • 13. Gabriel Venel Chemistry suffered from the lack of an organizing theory and needed someone who could bring about a “revolution” in the science. 1753
  • 15. Johann Becher 1635 - 1682 Introduced the idea that there was a substance contained within combustible matter that was released upon combustion (1667)
  • 16. Johann Becher 1635 - 1682 Earth Water Terra lapidea (fusibility) Terra fluida (fluidity, volatility, metallicity) Terra pinguis (oily, sulphurous, combustibility)
  • 17. Georg Stahl 1659 - 1734 1697: Introduces the term “phlogiston” for the (nearly) weightless “inflammable principle” Studies its role in combustion and oxidation (“calcination”) Charcoal & oil were rich in phlogiston. Metal = calyx + phlogiston
  • 18. Georg Stahl 1659 - 1734 Chemical reactions occur by phlogiston transferring from one substance to another. A theory that unified combustion, metabolism, rusting and other phenomena and that explained many facts ...
  • 19. Such as ... Weight loss when combustibles are burned because they lose phlogiston Fire burns out in an enclosed space because it saturates the air with phlogiston Animals die in an airtight space because the air becomes saturated with phlogiston Some metal calxes turn to metals when heated with charcoal because the phlogiston from the charcoal restores the phlogiston in the metal
  • 20. Joseph Priestly 1733 – 1804 Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air (1772) Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Airs (1774 – ’86) Discovered “dephlogisticated air” (1774) Member of the Lunar Society
  • 21. Matthew Boulton James Watt
  • 22. Josiah Wedgewood Erasmus Darwin
  • 23. 1772: Interest in “airs” Discovered that phosphorous and sulfur gain weight when they are burned. In a private note to the secretary of the Academy, he extends this to all bodies undergoing combustion or calcination.
  • 24. 1772: Crisis Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau shows that all metals gain weight when calcinated (oxidized). But if calcination was explained by the loss of phlogistion from the metal, how could this be?
  • 25. 1773 “The importance of this subject has prompted me once more to undertake all this work, which seemed to me destined to bring about a revolution in physics and chemistry.”
  • 29. Oxygen 1771 – Carl Scheele isolates “fire air” 1774 – Joseph Priestley isolates a new air and visits Lavoisier in Paris to describe his experiments 1775 – Priestly names “dephlogisticated air” 1776 – Lavoisier repeats Priestley’s experiments 1777 – Scheele’s Treatise on Air & Fire published.
  • 31. 1777 “I shall henceforth designate dephlogisticated air ... by the name of the acidifying principle, or, if one prefers the same signification in a Greek word, by that of oxygen principle.”
  • 32. Death of Phlogiston Lavoisier publishes his “Memoir on Combustion in General” (1777). He uses Priestley’s original experiments on oxygen, combustion and water against the theory of phlogiston, and shows that combustion required the presence of oxygen. Priestly responds in “Experiments relating to Phlogiston” (1783) and “Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston” (1796).
  • 33. Richard Kirwan 1733 – 1812 Fellow of the Royal Society President of the Royal Irish Academy. Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids (1787) Also opposed Hutton’s theory of the Earth
  • 34. Hydrogen First produced by the 16th century alchemist Paracelsus 1671: Re-discovered by Robert Boyle 1766: Called “inflammable air” by Henry Cavendish 1783: Called “hydrogen” by Lavoisier after he and Simon LaPlace replicate Cavendish’s experiments.
  • 35. Henry Cavendish 1731 – 1810 Made “inflammable air” by combining metals and strong acids. Discovered that when it was mixed with “dephlogisticated air,” water resulted. Discovered that 79.167% of the atmosphere is “phlogisticated” and 20.8333% “dephlogisticated”
  • 36. Henry Cavendish 1731 – 1810 Independently discovered (but never published): Ohm’s Law Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures Coulomb’s Law Charles’ Law of Gases
  • 37. Nomenclature “We must clean house thoroughly, for they have made use of an enigmatical language peculiar to themselves, which in general presents one meaning for the adepts and another meaning for the vulgar, and at the same time contains nothing that is rationally intelligible either for the one or for the other.”
  • 38. Nomenclature Étienne Bonnot de Condillac’s claim that “the art of reasoning depends on a well-made language.” He also had learned Linnaean nomenclature. 1787: Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature). Tied to his theoretical concerns
  • 39. Traité Élémentaire de Chimie 1789 Emphatically rejected phlogiston and outlined the oxygen theory of combustion. Defined an element as a substance that cannot be broken down further by any known method. Defined compounds as combinations of two or more elements – example of water. Outline theory of radicals (combinations of elements that work together) Clearly stated the Law of Conservation of Mass
  • 40. Mass Conservation “Wrongly do the Greeks suppose that aught begins or ceases to be; for nothing comes into being or is destroyed; but all is an aggregation or secretion of pre-existing things; so that all becoming might more correctly be called becoming mixed, and all corruption, becoming separate.” (Anaxagoras, c450 BCE) “The sum total of things was always such as it is now, and such it will ever remain” (Epicurus, 341-270 BCE) “A body of matter cannot disappear completely. It only changes its form, condition, composition, color and other properties and turns into a different complex or elementary matter.” (Tusi, 1201 – 1274 CE)
  • 41. Mass Conservation “Nothing is created, either in the operations of art or in those of nature, and it may be considered as a general principle that in every operation there exists an equal quantity of matter before and after the operation; that the quality and quantity of the constituents is the same, and that what happens is only changes, modifications. It is on this principle that is founded all the art of performing chemical experiments; in all such must be assumed a true equality or equation between constituents of the substances examined, and those resulting from their analysis.”
  • 42. Further Work Introduction of the metric system Drawing of vertical cross- sections to represent stratigraphic order. Studies of transpiration and respiration
  • 50. Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze 1758 – 1836 Father was member of Ferme Générale Married Lavoisier in 1771 Served as Lavoisier’s assistant, illustrator, and translator (English & Latin) Translated Kirwan’s Essay on Phlogiston for publication and the works of Cavendish & Priestley (for Lavoisier’s own use).
  • 51. Marc-Auguste Pictet “Chemistry, banished until now to a small circle of adepts whose language and ideas were equally obscure, has become the inseparable aide and companion to Physics: these sciences, united and guided by experiment alone, have proceeded at a rapid pace; Chemistry itself has undergone a great revolution, a frightful scaffolding has given way to a simple and illuminating theory, based upon immediate consequences of experiment … Everything indicates that we are on the right path, and that it will lead daily to discoveries in the natural sciences.”
  • 52. 1790 “This then is the revolution which has occurred in an important branch of human knowledge since your departure from Europe; I look upon this revolution as well advanced and it will be complete if you will stand with us”
  • 53. 1791 “All the young scientists adopt the new theory and I thence conclude that the revolution is accomplished in chemistry”
  • 54. Revolution 1787 – Cavendish abandons phlogiston 1789 – Universal acceptance in France Early 1790’s – Edinburgh & Glasgow 1791 – Kirwan abandons phlogiston 1800 – Spread throughout Europe and on to America
  • 55. I. Bernard Cohen “Lavosier’s Chemical Revolution passes all the tests for a revolution in science. It has been recognized as a revolution by all historians and scientists, just as it was seen to be a revolution in its own time. Additionally, the whole science of chemistry and its language have followed the lines set forth in the Chemical Revolution. The Chemical Revolution is thus a paradigmatic example of a revolution in science.”
  • 56. Carleton E. Perrin “The Chemical Revolution is a classic instance of conceptual change in science – one of the first to be foretold. Venel had called for a breakthrough that would exploit the distinctive methods and concepts of chemistry to establish it as the independent peer of physics. … [Lavoisier’s] innovations transformed the structure and language of chemistry, generating a crisis that split the community. Chemistry emerged from the conflict as a more mature discipline with the public recognition Venel had desired.”
  • 57. 1790 “Now that you have been informed as to what has transpired in chemistry, it might be well to speak of our political revolution. We look upon this as accomplished and accomplished irretrievably.”
  • 63. Jacques Louis David “Let them be closed forever, these schools of flattery and servility … In the name of humanity, in the name of justice, and above all for your love of youth, let us destroy – let us annihilate – these deadly academies, which can no longer survive under a free regime.”
  • 64. Jean-Paul Marat 1791 “I denounce to you the Coryphaeus of the charlatans, Master Lavoisier, son of a land-grabber, apprentice-chemist, pupil of the Genevan stock-jobber Necker, a Farmer General, Commissioner for Gunpowder and Saltpeter, director of the Discount Bank, secretary to the King, member of the Academy of Science, intimate of Vauvilliers, unfaithful administrator of the Paris Food Commission, and the greatest schemer of our times.”
  • 65. 1794

Editor's Notes

  2. Portrait of Lavoisier six years before his eventual death / Aged 45 / One year before the French Revolution
  3. Creation of gases / synthesis of water / measurement / Traité Élémentaire de Chimie
  5. In ’86, L’s work with the FG allowed him turn a profit of close to 48M USD. He used this money to support his research. The GA sold French gunpowder to the American revolutionaries / It gave L a home in the Arsenal when he built a lab. The DB lunctioned to lend money to the Royal treasury
  6. Marat believed in an “igneous fluid” that was contained within bodies. As we will see, L had been working on combustion for quite a while by then.
  7. Franklin / Double-blinds / No magnets required / Actually a form of hypnotism / invisible forces / action at a distance
  8. A certain elitism
  11. A practical science / A Kuhnian “pre-science”?
  12. Open versus the closed hermetic nature of alchemy / Boyle challenged the traditional elements and the alchemical vision.
  14. The Chemistry of Gases
  15. was certain that, given the right materials, he could make himself invisible
  16. elements of air and fire replaced
  20. Sold idea to a certain Dr Schweppes
  21. Devp of steam engine
  23. They must be absorbing something, most likely from the air.
  26. The supercollideer of its day / Need to have vessel to capture gas (CO2). Impossible to build at the time / Need to have vessel to capture gas (CO2). Impossible to build at the time
  27. The supercollideer of its day / Need to have vessel to capture gas (CO2). Impossible to build at the time / Need to have vessel to capture gas (CO2). Impossible to build at the time
  29. Producing Oxygen
  30. Becomes oxygène in 1787 / oxy – acid … gen – generating. Some acids do contain O2 but not all.
  32. One of the last supporters of phlogiston / L reprinted ESSAY with commentaries. In 1789, K reprinted the reprint with commentary. / Eventually abandoned phlogiston in 1791
  34. Modern values: N 78.084 and O 20.946
  35. Shy – possibly aspergers?
  37. Lists 55 elements / two part names / examples Nitric, Nitrous, Nitrate, Nitrite
  38. In all of this L was building on the work of others and putting it into the correct theoretical framework. Shifted Chemistry from Baconian observation to Newtonian theory.
  40. Stoichiometry ...
  41. Stoichiometry ...
  48. 13 years old at marriage – avoiding marriage to 50 y.o. -
  49. 1789
  50. Letter to Ben Franklin
  55. Letter to Ben Franklin
  56. Storming of the Bastile 1789 / Execution of Louis 16 1793 / between 18,000 and 40,000 people were executed during the Reign of Terror (until 95) / marat robspierre danton / latter two in 1794.
  57. Storming of the Bastile 1789 / Execution of Louis 16 1793 / between 18,000 and 40,000 people were executed during the Reign of Terror (until 95) / marat robspierre danton / latter two in 1794.
  58. Storming of the Bastile 1789 / Execution of Louis 16 1793 / between 18,000 and 40,000 people were executed during the Reign of Terror (until 95) / marat robspierre danton / latter two in 1794.
  59. Storming of the Bastile 1789 / Execution of Louis 16 1793 / between 18,000 and 40,000 people were executed during the Reign of Terror (until 95) / marat robspierre danton / latter two in 1794.
  60. Himself a member of the Academy of Painting & Sculpture
  62. Arrest of the Ferme Générale / Charges were pressed by an ex-FG member. All members (incl L’s father in law) were executed. Image by Beaulieu.
  63. David - Death of Marat (’93) Charlotte Corday, Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry, 1860