Metacognition and Theory of Mind. By Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa. December 2014

Metacognition and
Theory of Mind
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
Harvard University, Psych 1609
Week 14, December 2014
1

Today’s focus
¤  Feedback as a key to learning
¤  Internal feedback
¤  Metacognition (thinking about thinking)
¤  Neuroimaging
¤  Improvement?
¤  External feedback
¤  Theory of Mind (your perception of the other)
¤  Neuroimaging
¤  Improvement?
¤  Fun questions:
¤  Do animals other than humans have Theory of Mind?
¤  Relationship between Metacognition, Self-Knowledge, Theory of Mind,
Social Cognition, Consciousness and Emotional Intelligence?
¤  Summary of session, summary ideas (Dr. Peabody)
2

Feedback as a key to learning
¤  According to Bollich, Johannet,
and Vazire (2011), there are
“two main avenues for learning
about the self: looking inward
(e.g., introspection) and
looking outward (e.g.,
feedback)” (p. 312), but both
avenues have to be modeled
or taught explicitly to be
successful.
3

Metacognitive development: Giving
yourself feedback
¤  The key to inculcating good
metacognitive skills, according to
Kuhn (2000), is to focus on the
development of one’s own
awareness rather than on specific
steps or procedures for improving
these skills.
¤  Hennessey (1999) suggests that a
key element in developing good
metacognitive skills is helping
students to reason, understand
concepts, and make their beliefs
more “visible” to themselves and
others.
4
Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.163

Quick reply on chat: Definitions
1.  Metacognitive practice: What do I already know about
metacognition?
2.  What is the difference between “metacognition” and
“deep thinking” and “higher order thinking”?
5

Metacognition: “Highest” on the cognitive
scale?
6
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/567242515538562696/

Activities that stimulate
metacognition
¤  Metacognitive activities fall into six general categories:
1.  knowledge about oneself as a learner and factors affecting
cognition;
2.  awareness and management of cognition, including knowledge
about strategies;
3.  knowledge about why and when to use a given strategy;
4.  identification and selection of appropriate strategies and
allocation of resources;
5.  attending to and being aware of comprehension and task
performance; and
6.  assessing the processes and products of one’s learning and
revisiting and revising learning (Lai, 2011, p.7).
7

Enhancing metacognitive development:
How can we learn to improve
metacognition with the help others?
¤  A great teacher is able to
facilitate the retrieval of
past knowledge, help
identify patterns, and point
out novelties to improve
student learning.
8

¤  “Metacognition is actually
one of the easiest skills to
teach, but it must usually be
taught explicitly. ‘Today
we’re going to think about
how we think’ wouldn’t be a
bad way to start a lesson
emphasizing
metacognition.”
¤  “Teaching metacognitive
skills can often be
embedded in other
activities and doesn’t take
up much classroom time.”
9
How can we learn to improve
metacognition with the help others?

Self-questioning
¤  What do I already know about this?
¤  What do I know I need to know?
10

Activities that stimulate metacognition
¤  Activities that stimulate
metacognition do one of two
things: they either enhance
knowledge about cognition,
or they enhance monitoring of
cognition (Flavell, 1979;
Schneider, 2008, 2010).
11
http://www.slideshare.net/edd101/enhancing-learning-teamwork-skills-in-moodle
http://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/info_team_members/currdev/
effective_materials/metacog.html

Activities that stimulate metacognition
12
Carlton College, 2014: http://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/info_team_members/currdev/effective_materials/metacog.html

Quick reply on chat: Visibility of
metacognition?
¤  Can you “see” metacognition? What does it look like?
13

Can you “see” metacognition?
14
Observation of
emerging
metacognitive
skills in children.

15

16
Metacognitive Awareness Inventory

Quick reply on chat: How did you score
on the “Metacognitive Awareness
Inventory”?
¤  It’s not surprising that students’ scores on the Junior
Metacognitive Awareness Inventory correlate with
general cognitive gains; that is, the higher they score on
the Inventory, the better they generally do at school. The
18 items are mentioned here for reflection:
17

Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, pp.167-168
Metacognition is not just for
grown-ups
¤  Children as young as three exhibit
metacognitive abilities when thinking
about problem solving (Whitebread,
Bringham, Grau, Pino Pasternak, &
Sangster, 2007; Whitebread et al., 2009),
and children four or five years of age
can theorize about their own thinking
processes (Schraw & Moshman, 1995).
¤  The development of metacognitive
skills benefits overall learning in all
fields.
19

Quick reply on chat:
Development and training
¤  SELF: How can you improve your own metacognitive
skills?
¤  What will you do to further enhance your own
metacognitive awareness?
20

Evidence from neuroscience on
metacognitive development
¤  Chiou, K. S., & Hillary, F. G. (2012). Benefits of Order: The influence of item sequencing on
metacognition in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International
Neuropsychological Society, 18(02), 379-383.
¤  Chiou, K. S., Carlson, R. A., Arnett, P. A., Cosentino, S. A., & Hillary, F. G. (2011).
Metacognitive monitoring in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the
International Neuropsychological Society, 17(04), 720-731.
¤  Clark, K. B., & Hassert, D. L. (2013). Undecidability and opacity of metacognition in animals
and humans. Frontiers in Psychology, 4.
¤  Couchman, J. J., Beran, M. J., Coutinho, M. V., Boomer, J., Zakrzewski, A., Church, B., &
Smith, J. D. (2012). Do actions speak louder than words? A comparative perspective on
implicit versus explicit meta‐cognition and theory of mind. British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 210-221.
¤  Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). The neural basis of metacognitive ability.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,367(1594),
1338-1349.
21

¤  Fleming, S. M., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2012). Metacognition: computation, biology and
function. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1594),
1280-1286.
¤  Fleming, S. M., Huijgen, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). Prefrontal contributions to metacognition in
perceptual decision making. The Journal of Neuroscience,32(18), 6117-6125.
¤  Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Nagy, Z., Dolan, R. J., & Rees, G. (2010). Relating introspective
accuracy to individual differences in brain structure. Science,329(5998), 1541-1543.
¤  Fletcher, L., & Carruthers, P. (2012). Metacognition and reasoning. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,367(1594), 1366-1378.
¤  Frith, C. D. (2011). What brain plasticity reveals about the nature of consciousness:
commentary. Frontiers in Psychology, 2.
¤  Middlebrooks, P. G., & Sommer, M. A. (2012). Neuronal correlates of metacognition in
primate frontal cortex. Neuron, 75(3), 517-530.
¤  Miele, D. B., Wager, T. D., Mitchell, J. P., & Metcalfe, J. (2011). Dissociating neural correlates of
action monitoring and metacognition of agency. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(11),
3620-3636.
¤  Shea, N., Boldt, A., Bang, D., Yeung, N., Heyes, C., & Frith, C. D. (2014). Supra-personal
cognitive control and metacognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(4), 186-193.
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Metacognition is measureable
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Theory of Mind: Getting
feedback from others
¤  “Theory of mind
tries to elaborate
and define the
individual in the
context of the
people and
society in which
he lives.
¤  Humans have the
capacity to
attribute mental
states to others by
interpreting what
others feel and
think.
32

¤  The theory of mind, which
rests on the belief that
learning is highly dependent
on contact with others as
well as the emotions one
feels when with those
“others,” is a deep-thinking
model that has guide
modern reflection in
classroom settings and
beyond.”
33

¤  “Theory of mind is rooted in a great
deal of neurological studies that have
taken place over the past decade
(Ochsner et al., 2004; Pelphrey, Morris,
& McCarthy, 2004; Samson, Apperly,
Chiavarino, & Humphreys, 2004; Saxe,
2004; Saxe & Powell, 2006; Scholz,
Triantafyllou, Whitfield-Gabrieli, Brown,
& Saxe, 2009; Schultz, 2003), and
reminds us that in order to survive, we
need to not only know how to manage
ourselves well, but be aware of and
respond to the social expectations of
others (Mundy & Newell, 2007).”
34

Self-Knowledge and
Metacognition
¤  “Self-knowledge plays chicken-or-egg with theory of
mind, which suggests that in order to understand oneself,
one has to understand the “Other” (but to understand the
Other, one needs to know oneself).
¤  It is interesting to note that brain studies have shown that
self-assessment and self-understanding use similar neural
networks as assessment of others (Legrand & Ruby, 2009),
which lends support to the theory of mind concept that
we know ourselves by knowing others.”
35
Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.164.
Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.103.

¤  Johnson, S. C., Baxter, L. C., Wilder, L. S., Pipe, J. G., Heiserman,
J. E., & Prigatano, G. P. (2002). Neural correlates of self‐
reflection. Brain, 125(8), 1808-1814.
36

Theory of Mind:
Research in the field
¤  Premack and Woodruff (1978) introduced the concept of
theory of mind in the 1970s. It was defined clearly in humans
by Baron-Cohen (1991), Dennett (1992), Meltzoff (1995), and
Gagliardi in the 1990s (Gagliardi et al., 1995), and has
recently been made popular by Daniel Siegel (2001, 2012),
Steven Pinker (1997, 2002), Jaime Pineda (2008), and Uta Frith
and Cris Frith (2003).
¤  Work by Iacoboni, Molnar-Szakacs, Gallese, Buccino, and
Mazziotta (2005) and Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004) helped
bring the mirror neuron system into the theory of mind
discussion by suggesting that an individual “mirrors” the
behavior of others.
37

Theory of Mind: Definitions
¤  Premack and
Woodruff (1978): “An
individual has a
theory of mind if he
imputes mental
states to himself and
others.”
38

Theory of Mind: Definitions
Humans tend to presume that others
have minds similar to their own. This
can be confirmed by three
conditions:
¤  (1) joint attention
¤  (2) the functional use of language
¤  (3) understand others emotions
¤  (4) understanding others actions
(motivations)
¤  (1) Baron-Cohen (1991)
Precursors to a theory of
mind.
¤  (2) Bruner (1981) Intention
in the structure and action
and interaction.
¤  (3) Gordon (1996) Theories
of theories of mind.
¤  (4) Gordon (1996) Theories
of theories of mind.
39

Theory of Mind: Knowing the
other to know oneself
40

Neuroimaging of
Theory of Mind
¤  Amodio, D. M., & Frith, C. D. (2006). Meeting of minds: the medial frontal
cortex and social cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(4), 268-277.
¤  Corbetta, M., Patel, G., & Shulman, G. L. (2008). The reorienting system of
the human brain: from environment to theory of mind. Neuron, 58(3),
306-324.
¤  Fletcher, P. C., Happe, F., Frith, U., Baker, S. C., Dolan, R. J., Frackowiak, R.
S., & Frith, C. D. (1995). Other minds in the brain: a functional imaging
study of “theory of mind” in story comprehension. Cognition, 57(2),
109-128.
¤  Gallagher, H. L., & Frith, C. D. (2003). Functional imaging of ‘theory of
mind’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(2), 77-83.
¤  Gallagher, H. L., Happé, F., Brunswick, N., Fletcher, P. C., Frith, U., & Frith,
C. D. (2000). Reading the mind in cartoons and stories: an fMRI study of
‘theory of mind’ in verbal and nonverbal tasks. Neuropsychologia, 38(1),
11-21.
¤  Johnson, S. C., Baxter, L. C., Wilder, L. S., Pipe, J. G., Heiserman, J. E., &
Prigatano, G. P. (2002). Neural correlates of self‐reflection. Brain, 125(8),
1808-1814.
41

¤  Rilling, J. K., Sanfey, A. G., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The
neural correlates of theory of mind within interpersonal interactions.
Neuroimage, 22(4), 1694-1703.
¤  Saxe, R., & Powell, L. J. (2006). It's the Thought That Counts Specific Brain Regions for
One Component of Theory of Mind. Psychological science, 17(8), 692-699.
¤  Schulte-Rüther, M., Markowitsch, H., Fink, G., & Piefke, M. (2007). Mirror neuron and
theory of mind mechanisms involved in face-to-face interactions: a functional
magnetic resonance imaging approach to empathy. Cognitive Neuroscience, Journal
of, 19(8), 1354-1372.
¤  Siegal, M., & Varley, R. (2002). Neural systems involved in 'theory of mind'. Nature
Reviews Neuroscience, 3(6), 463-471.
¤  Spreng, R. N., Mar, R. A., & Kim, A. S. (2009). The common neural basis of
autobiographical memory, prospection, navigation, theory of mind, and the default
mode: a quantitative meta-analysis. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(3), 489-510.
¤  Stone, V. E., Baron-Cohen, S., & Knight, R. T. (1998). Frontal lobe contributions to theory
of mind. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(5), 640-656.
¤  Vogeley, K., Bussfeld, P., Newen, A., Herrmann, S., Happé, F., Falkai, P., ... & Zilles, K.
(2001). Mind reading: neural mechanisms of theory of mind and self-
perspective. Neuroimage, 14(1), 170-181.
¤  Völlm, B. A., Taylor, A. N., Richardson, P., Corcoran, R., Stirling, J., McKie, S., ... & Elliott, R.
(2006). Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: a functional magnetic
resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task. Neuroimage, 29(1), 90-98.
42

Attention circuits in the brain
related to Theory of Mind
¤  “In functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, a
cortical region in the right temporo-parietal junction (RTPJ) is
recruited when participants read stories about people's thoughts
(‘Theory of Mind’). Both fMRI and lesion studies suggest that a region
near the RTPJ is associated with attentional reorienting in response
to an unexpected stimulus. Do Theory of Mind and attentional
reorienting recruit a single population of neurons, or are there two
neighboring but distinct neural populations in the RTPJ? … In all,
these results suggest that there are neighboring but distinct regions
within the RTPJ implicated in Theory of Mind and orienting
attention.”
50
Scholz, J., Triantafyllou, C., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Brown, E.N., & Saxe, R. (2009). Distinct regions
of right temporo-parietal junction are selective for theory of mind and exogenous attention.
PLoS One 4(3), e4869. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004869. PMID 1929004

¤  “Survival can depend on the ability to change a current course of
action to respond to potentially advantageous or threatening stimuli.
This “reorienting” response involves the coordinated action of a right
hemisphere dominant ventral frontoparietal network that interrupts
and resets ongoing activity and a dorsal frontoparietal network
specialized for selecting and linking stimuli and responses... While
originally conceptualized as a system for redirecting attention from
one object to another, recent evidence suggests a more general role
in switching between networks, which may explain recent evidence
of its involvement in functions such as social cognition.”
51
Corbetta, M., Patel, G., & Shulman, G. L. (2008). The reorienting system of the human brain:
from environment to theory of mind. Neuron, 58(3), 306-324.

¤  “Metacognition refers to any knowledge or cognitive process that
monitors or controls cognition. We highlight similarities between
metacognitive and executive control functions, and ask how these
processes might be implemented in the human brain. A review of
brain imaging studies reveals a circuitry of attentional networks
involved in these control processes, with its source located in
midfrontal areas. These areas are active during conflict resolution,
error correction, and emotional regulation. A developmental
approach to the organization of the anatomy involved in executive
control provides an added perspective on how these mechanisms
are influenced by maturation and learning, and how they relate to
metacognitive activity.”
52
Fernandez-Duque, D., Baird, J. A., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Executive attention and metacognitive
regulation. Consciousness and cognition, 9(2), 288-307.

Quick reply on chat: (1)Possible
Roadblocks? (2) Animals
1.  What are some possible roadblocks to the development of
Theory of Mind?
¤  Neurotoxins?
¤  Families or other social interaction?
2.  Do animals other than humans have theory of mind?
¤  Theory of Mind requires understanding the other.
¤  Can other animals be conscious of another’s mindframe?
53

Historical development of the
argument
¤  Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978).
Does the chimpanzee have a theory
of mind?. Behavioral and brain
sciences, 1(04), 515-526.
¤  Heyes, C. M. (1998). Theory of mind in
nonhuman primates. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 21(01), 101-114.
¤  Penn, D. C., & Povinelli, D. J. (2007).
On the lack of evidence that non-
human animals possess anything
remotely resembling a ‘theory of
mind’. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences, 362(1480), 731-744.
“Since the BBS article in which
Premack and Woodruff (1978) asked
“Does the chimpanzee have a
theory of mind?,” it has been
repeatedly claimed that there is
observational and experimental
evidence that apes have mental
state concepts, such as “want” and
“know.” Unlike research on the
development of theory of mind in
childhood, however, no substantial
progress has been made through
this work with nonhuman
primates” (Heyes, 1998, p.101).
54

Historical development of the
argument
¤  Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Does the chimpanzee have a
theory of mind? 30 years later. Trends in cognitive sciences, 12(5),
187-192.
55

Conditions for Theory of Mind
Deleau, M. (2012). Language
and theory of mind: Why
pragmatics matter. European
Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 9(3), 295-312.
¤  (1) joint attention
¤  (2) the functional use of
language
¤  (3) understand others
emotions
¤  (4) understanding others
actions (motivations)
56

Quick reply on chat:
Related terms
¤  Relationship between Metacognition, Self-
Knowledge, Theory of Mind, Social Cognition,
Consciousness, Executive Functions and Emotional
Intelligence?
57

Lots left to research! Good luck!
¤  Studies exist crossing two dimensional visions, however there is
a lack of evidence linking all areas.
¤  Ready for the challenge?!
58

3-2-1
1.  Three things you learned.
2.  Two things you will share.
3.  One thing you will change.
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Psych 1609: Neuroscience of
Learning and Change
60

Suggested readings on Metacognition
¤  Bollich, K. L., Johannet, P. M., & Vazire, S. (2011). In search of our true selves:
Feedback as a path to self-knowledge. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 312. doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00312
¤  Borkowski, J. G., Carr, M., Rellinger, E., & Pressley, M. (2013). Self-regulated
cognition: Interdependence of metacognition. Dimensions of Thinking and
Cognitive Instruction, 53.
¤  Brown, A. L. (1975). The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about
knowing, and knowing how to know. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child
development and behavior (Vol. 10). New York, NY: Academic Press.
¤  Brown, A. L. (1978). Knowing when, where, and how to remember: A problem of
metacognition. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology 7 (pp.55–
111). New York, NY: Academic Press.
¤  Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. S. Spiro, B. B.
Bruce, & W. L. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
¤  Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation and other
more mysterious mechanism. In F.E. Weinert, & R.H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition,
motivation, and understanding (pp. 65–116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
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¤  Browne, M. N., & Keeley, S. M. (2006). Asking the right questions: A guide to
critical thinking (8th ed.). New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
¤  Carruthers, P. (2009). How we know our own minds: The relationship between
mindreading and metacognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 121–138
doi:10.1017/S0140525X09000545
¤  Desautel, D. (2009). Becoming a thinking thinker: Metacognition, self-reflection,
and classroom practice. Teachers College Records, 111(8), http://
www.tcrecord.org ID Number: 15504
¤  Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
¤  Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.
¤  Flavell, J. H. (1982). On cognitive development. Child Development, 53, 1–10.
¤  Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of
metacognition. In Weinert, F. E., & Kluwe, R. H. (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation,
and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
¤  Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). The neural basis of metacognitive ability.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 367(1594),
1338–1349.
¤  Fleming, S. M., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2012). Metacognition: Computation,
biology and function. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biological
Science, 367(1594), 1280–1286.
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¤  Fleming, S. M., Huijgen, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). Prefrontal contributions to
metacognition in perceptual decision making. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(18),
6117–6125.
¤  Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Nagy, Z., Dolan, R. J., & Rees, G. (2010). Relating
introspective accuracy to individual differences in brain structure. Science,
329(5998), 1541–1543. doi:10.1126/science.1191883
¤  Frith, C. D. (2012). The role of metacognition in human social interactions.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 367(1599),
2213–2223.
¤  Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, & Graesser, A. C. (Eds.) (2009). Handbook of
metacognition in education. New York, NY: Routledge.
¤  Hofer, B. K., & Sinatra, G. M. (2010). Epistemology, metacognition, and self-
regulation: Musings on an emerging field. Metacognition and Learning, 5(1),
113–120.
¤  Kacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (2009). Handbook of metacognition
in education. New York, NY: Routledge.
¤  Lai, E. R. (2011). Metacognition: A literature review (Research report prepared for
Pearson). New York, NY: Pearson.
¤  Larkin, S. (2010). Metacognition in young children. New York, NY: Routledge.
¤  Leat, D., & Lin, M. (2003). Developing a pedagogy of metacognition and
transfer: Some signposts for the generation and use of knowledge and the
creation of research partnerships. British Educational Research Journal, 29(3),
383–414. doi: 10.1080/01411920301853
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¤  Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved from http://
www.josemnazevedo.uac.pt/pessoal/textos/Metacognition.pdf
¤  Logam, J. M., Castel, A. D., Haber, S., & Biehman, E. J. (2012). Metacognition
and the spacing effect: The role of repetition, feedback, and instruction on
judgment of learning for massed and spaced rehearsal. Metacognition and
Learning, 7(3), 175–195.
¤  Middlebrooks, P. G., & Sommer, M. A. (2012). Neuronal correlates of
metacognition in primate frontal cortex. Neuron, 75(3), 517–530.
¤  Miller, T., & Geraci, L. (2011). Training metacognition in the classroom: the
influence of incentives and feedback on exam predictions. Metacognition and
Learning, 6(3), 303–314
¤  Pennequin, V., Sorel, O., & Moainguy, M. (2010). Metacognition, executive
functions and aging: The effect of training in the use of metacognitive skills to
solve mathematical word problems. Journal of Adult Development, 17(3), 168–
178.
¤  Salatas Waters, H., & Schneider, W. (Eds.). (2009). Metacognition, strategy use
and instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
¤  Schellenberg, S., Negishi, M., & Eggen, P. (2011). The effects of metacognition
and concrete encoding strategies on depth of understanding in educational
psychology. Teaching Educational Psychology, 7(2), 17–24.
¤  Shimamura, A. P. (2000). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of metacognition.
Consciousness and Cognition, 9(2), 313–323.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ccog.2000.0450
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¤  Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and
educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379–399.
¤  Stillman, G., & Mevarech, Z. (2010). Metacognition research in mathematics
education: From hot topic to mature field. ZDM, 42(2), 145–148.
¤  Voss, J. F., Perkins, D. N., & Segal, J. W. (Eds.) (2012). Informal reasoning and
education. New York, NY: Routledge.
¤  Wahlheim, C. N., Dunlosky, J., & Jacoby, L. L. (2011). Spacing enhances the
learning of natural concepts: An investigation of mechanisms, metacognition,
and aging. Memory & Cognition, 39(5), 750–763. doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0063-y
¤  Whitebread, D., Bringham, S., Grau, V., Pino Pasternak, D., & Sangster, C.
(2007). Development of metacognition and self-regulated learning in young
children: Role of collaborative and peer-assisted learning. Journal of Cognitive
Education and Psychology, 6(3), 433–455(23). doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1891/194589507787382043
¤  Whitebread, D., Coltman, P., Pasternak, D. P., Sangster, C., Grau, V., Bingham,
S…. & Demetriou, D. (2009). The development of two observational tools for
assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children.
Metacognition and Learning, 4(1), 63–85.
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Suggested readings on Theory of Mind
¤  Baron-Cohen, S. (1991). Precursors to a theory of mind: Understanding
attention in others. In A. Whiten (Ed.), Natural theories of mind: Evolution,
development, and simulation of everyday mindreading (pp. 233–251).
Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
¤  Blakemore, S. J., & Decety, J. (2001). From the perception of action to the
understanding of intention. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 561–567.
¤  Buckner, R. L., & Carroll, D. C. (2007). Self-projection and the brain. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 49–57.
¤  Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., & Decety, D. (2010). Social neuroscience
and its relationship to social psychology. Social Cognition, 28(Special Issue),
675–685.
¤  Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation
between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory
control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 73–92.
¤  Decety, J., & Baston, D. (2007). Social neuroscience approached to
interpersonal sensitivity. Social Neuroscience, 2(3–4), 151–157.
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¤  Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2007). The role of the right temporoparietal junction in
social interaction: How low-level computational processes contribute to meta-
cognition. Neuroscientist, 13(6), 580–593.
¤  Decety, J., & Sommerville, J.A. (2003). Shared representations between self
and other: A social cognitive neuroscience view. Trend in Cognitive Sciences,
7(12), 527–533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.004
¤  Dennett, D. (1992). Consciousness explained. Boston, MA: Back Bay Books.
¤  Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2012). Mechanisms of social cognition. Annual Review of
Psychology 63, 287–313. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100449
¤  Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (2003). Development and neurophysiology of
mentalizing. Philosophical Transactions R Social Lond B Biological Science
358(1431), 459–73. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1218. PMC 1693139. PMID 12689373
¤  Gagliardi, J. L., Kirkpatrick-Steger, K. K., Thomas, J., Allen, G. J., & Blumberg, M.
S. (1995). Seeing and knowing: Knowledge attribution versus stimulus control in
adult humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 109(2),
107.
¤  Meltzoff, A. (1995). Understanding the intentions of others: Re-enactment of
intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 838–
850.
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¤  Ochsner, K.N., Knierim, K., Ludlow, D.H., Hanelin, J., Ramachandran, T., Glover,
G., & Mackey, S.C. (2004). Reflecting upon feelings: An fMRI study of neural
systems supporting the attribution of emotion to self and other. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(10), 1746–1772. doi:10.1162/0898929042947829
¤  Pelphrey, K.A., Morris, J.P., & McCarthy, G. (2004). Grasping the intentions of
others: The perceived intentionality of an action influences activity in the
superior temporal sulcus during social perception. Journal of Cognitive
Science, 16(10), 1706–1716.
¤  Pineda, J. A. (Ed.) (2008). Mirror neuron systems: The role of mirroring processes
in social cognition. New York, NY: Springer.
¤  Pinker, D. H. (2009). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New
York, NY: Riverhead.
¤  Pinker, S. (2002). How the mind works. New York, NY: Norton.
¤  Premack, D. G. & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of
mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 515–52.
¤  Samson, D., Apperly, I. A., Chiavarino, C., & Humphreys, G.W. (2004). Left
temporoparietal junction is necessary for representing someone else’s belief.
Nature Neuroscience, 7(5), 499–500.
¤  Saxe, R. (2004). A region of right posterior superior temporal sulcus response to
observed intentional actions. Neuropsychologia 42, 1435–1446.
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¤  Saxe, R. & Powell, L. (2006). It’s the thought that counts: Specific brain
regions for one component of Theory of Mind. Psychological Science
17(8), 692–699.
¤  Scholz, J., Triantafyllou, C., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Brown, E.N., & Saxe, R.
(2009). Distinct regions of right temporo-parietal junction are selective
for theory of mind and exogenous attention. PLoS One 4(3), e4869. doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0004869. PMID 1929004
¤  Siegel, D. (2001). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain
interact to shape who we are. New York, NY: Guilford.
¤  Siegel, D. (2012). The developing mind: how relationships and the brain
interact to shape who we are (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
¤  Torey, Z. (2009). The crucible of consciences: An integrated theory of
mind and brain. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
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Contact:
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
Universidad de las Américas
traceytokuhamaespinosa@gmail.com
70

Metacognition and Theory of Mind. By Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa. December 2014

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Metacognition and Theory of Mind. By Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa. December 2014