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Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things, Internet of Everything, Web of Things, and Hyperconnectivity

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Maurice Dawson
Maurice Dawson

Secure computing is essential as environments continue to become intertwined and hyperconnected. As the Internet of Things (IoT), Web of Things (WoT), and the Internet of Everything (IoE) dominate the landscape of technological platforms, protection these complicated networks is important. The everyday person who wishes to have more devices that allow the ability to be connected needs to be aware of what threats they could be potentially exposing themselves to. Additionally, for the unknowing consumer of everyday products needs to be aware of what it means to have sensors, Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID), Bluetooth, and WiFi enabled products. This submission explores how Availability, Integrity, and Confidentiality (AIC) can be applied to IoT, WoT, and IoE with consideration for the application of these architectures in the defense sector.

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Copyright ©2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0741-3.ch001 Chapter 1 1 Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things, Internet of Everything, Web of Things, and Hyperconnectivity ABSTRACT Secure computing is essential as environments continue to become intertwined and hyperconnected. As the Internet of Things (IoT), Web of Things (WoT), and the Internet of Everything (IoE) dominate the landscape of technological platforms, protectionthesecomplicatednetworksisimportant.Theeverydaypersonwhowishes to have more devices that allow the ability to be connected needs to be aware of what threats they could be potentially exposing themselves to. Additionally, for the unknowing consumer of everyday products needs to be aware of what it means to have sensors, Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID), Bluetooth, and WiFi enabled products. This submission explores how Availability, Integrity, and Confidentiality (AIC) can be applied to IoT, WoT, and IoE with consideration for the application of these architectures in the defense sector. Maurice Dawson University of Missouri – St. Louis, USA
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 2 INTRODUCTION The next era of computing will be outside of the traditional desktop (Gubbi, Buyya, Marusic,&Palaniwami,2013).WhenyouconsiderBringYourOwnDevice(BYOD) asaradicalstepimagineusingdevicessuchasarefrigeratorthatcontainanembedded computing device to track the quantity of groceries within. This embedded device would allow access to email, weather, and other devices that allow connectivity through WiFi, or some Application Programming Interface (API) to a web based application. Thus, the data collected would be weather, thermostat cooling patterns, foods purchased, the cost of items per month, average consumption, and more. This massive amount of data that can also be collected means there has to be the large place that this data is stored. At the moment organizations such as Cisco Systems and others are pushing for IoT, and IoT but none has a plan for ensuring Information Assurance (IA) posture is maintained during various modes of operation. HYPERCONNECTIVITY Hyperconnectivityisagrowingtrendthatisdrivingcybersecurityexpertstodevelop new security architectures for multiple platforms such as mobile devices, laptops, and even wearable displays (Dawson, Omar, Abramson, & Bessette, 2014). The futures of both national and international security rely on complex countermeasures to ensure that a proper security posture is maintained during this state of hyper- connectivity. To protect these systems from the exploitation of vulnerabilities, it is essential to understand current and future threats to include the instructions, laws, policies, mandates, and directives that drive their need to be secured. It is impera- tive to understand the potential security-related threats with the use of social media, mobile devices, virtual worlds, augmented reality, and mixed reality. In an article published by Forbes, a contributor describes the concept of hyper- connectivity in six different scenarios (Ranadivé, 2013). These events range from energy to hospitality. In health-care there would be real time monitoring through wrist monitors that the medical staff could monitor to get instantaneous feeds on patients that are real time. They would be able to foresee problems before they occur or receive alerts during various events. Imagine a pregnant woman that is having early complications could be monitored first through a wristband that delivers real- time patient information wirelessly. Whendiscussinghyperconnectivity,itisnecessarytoexaminesystemsofsystems concepts. Systems of systems is a collection of systems tied together to create a more complex system (Popper, Bankes, Callaway, & DeLaurentis, 2004). When thinking about the possibilities of hyperconnectivity the Personal Area Network (PAN) is
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 3 an excellent example as it allows multiple technologies to be interconnected with soil ware applications. The Google Glass has the potential to all Global Positioning System (GPS), social media, digital terrain overlays, and synchronization with other devices. This increases the complexity of the system as it becomes part of larger systems which multiplies the number of potential vulnerabilities. INTERNET OF THINGS IoT is a global infrastructure for information society enabling services by intercon- necting physical and virtual things based on existing and evolving interoperable Information Communication Technologies (ICT) (International Telecommunica- tion Union, 2012). Gartner has developed a figure which displays the hype cycle of emerging technologies. This hype circle shows the expectations on the y-axis where on the x-axis time is displayed [See Figure 1]. The time shown is the innovation trigger, the peak of inflated expectations, the trough of disillusionment, slope of enlightenment, and plateau of productivity (Gartner, 2014). What the figure fails to provide is anything associated with security about the technologies identified. The figure simply shows the cycle of emerging technologies with time corresponding to expectations. Figure 1. Gartner 2014 hype cycle of emerging technologies (Source: Gartner Inc.)
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 4 WEB OF THINGS The WoT is a continued vision that describes concepts where everyday objects are fully integrated into the World Wide Web (WWW). This concept focused on embedded computing devices that enable communication with WWW. The devices can ring from refrigerators to mobile devices with integrated with the Web through an API (Guinard & Trifa, 2009). The Social WoT offers opportunities to use social connections and underlying social graphs to share digital artifacts (Guinard, 2011). This would help bridge a gap between social networks and networks of objects trans- forming communication. Figure 2 displays the WoT architecture and the detailed layers it is comprised of. Figure 2. Building the web of things
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 5 This bridge between social connections and basic things could allow for a plethora of data that can be analyzed unlike before. When looking at the networked things you can see the multiple of different technologies can be enabled in WoT. When looking at Layer 1, you can immediately see items that are a cause of prob- lems. For examples, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) and JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) contain known vulnerabilities. In current social networks, geolo- cation provides individuals exact location. However, anyone that develops an ap- plication using this API can tweak items providing, even more, the granularity of its users. Even without modification of Tweets only adding the location will provide details such as neighborhood, city, state, or country. This publication information can be used to start an analysis. In iOS version 6.26+ and Android version 5.55+ precise location can be shared if elected to do so. Also, third party applications or websites may share specific Tweet locations as well. Various social media accounts provide the ability to associate a particular lo- cation. This position over time can provide trends of sites visited with time/date stamps. This can be used to start developing a full analysis on Tweeting trends from particular locations, frequency of location visits, and content analysis through text mining. Exchange Image File Format (EXIF) data is a standard that specifies the formats for images, sounds, and ancillary tags used by digital cameras. The EXIF digital image standard defines the following; the basic structure of digital image data files, labels and JPEG marker segments the conventional uses, and how to de- fine and management format versions (Tešić, 2005). Research has been conducted on how to extract efficiently EXIF data for prosecuting those involved in child pornography (Alvarex, 2004). In Layer 3, some of these concerns can be appropriately addressed. In this layer controls can be made for the ability to share content. Content can be tagged with a severity and classification to have automatically a security feature added. If the data were Personal Identifiable Information (PII) then the data would have encryption, and access controls that only allow certain individuals to obtain it. That data could be sent wireless over a Bluetooth enabled device or a medical beacon. INTERNET OF EVERTHING TheIoEconsistsoffourgroupingwitharedata,things,people,andprocess(Bradley, Barbier, & Handler, 2013). IoE leverages data as a means to make more insightful decisions. IoT plays a significant role in the things of IoE as this is the network of physical devices and objects connected to the Internet for decisions making. The IoE connects people in more valuable and relevant ways. The process is the last part which is delivering the correct information to the right entity at the right time.
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 6 Researchers at Cisco Systems estimate that over 99 percent of physical devices are still unconnected and that there is a market of $14.4 trillion. This white paper urges business leaders to transform their organizations based on key learnings to be competitive for the future. (Evans, 2012). IoE is comprised of four key things which are people, data, and things built on the process. The model IoE is made up of three types of connections: People to Machine (P2M), Machine to Machine (M2), and People to People (P2P). BODY HACKING AND ENHANCEMENT One of the newest trends in staying connected is human enhancement through body hacking (Nortol, 2007). This involves individuals placing RFID chips into their bodies. These RFID components are associated with unique ID numbers that can be used for unlocking doors, logistical tracking, embedded electronics, e-government, and more. The use for e-government would allow interaction between government Figure 3. The what, where, and how of the Internet of everything (Source: Cisco IBSG, 2012)
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 7 and outside groups through the connected body parts. A health organization could monitor the status of a group through embedded chips or other devices connected to an individual or group. The issues surrounding body hacking is the lack of security controls associated withmakingthesemods.Earlywhendiscussedinthischapterwashyperconnectivity, IoT, and IoE to provide an overview of these various technological concepts. When adding more connectivity to systems the complexity increases thus it becomes more difficult to protect effectively from potential threats. For items such a pacemakers it has already been proven to be hackable (Kirk, 2012; Richardson, n.d.). In the report Enhanced Warfighters: Risk, Ethics, and Policy (2013) that is pre- pared for The Greenwall Foundation discussed is the findings of using technology for soldiers. As other technologies are emerging within the United States (U.S.), a military sector so is robotics, Artificial Intelligence (AI), human enhancement technologies, other cyber capabilities. The issues surrounding human enhancement technologies among other items are the operational, ethical, and legal implications (Mehlman, Lin, P., & Abney, 2013). Regarding risks, those identified are about the technology falling into the wrong hands allowing for reverse engineering. Reverse engineering would allow non-friendlies to develop similar technologies on their own to rival those found on the warfighters. SECURITY AND PRIVACY As a new wave of Internet-enabled technologies arrive, it is imperative tounderstand fully the security and privacy concerns (Thierer, 2015). And understanding these concernsalsomeansunderstandinghowtoappropriatelyapplyIAcontrolstosystems. Addressing security objectives appropriately will allow for risks to be mitigated. This means following the principles of security to ensure IA posture is achieved. With all of these connected devices using proven standards, policies, and guid- ance can help with the ease of integrating these technologies into everyday life. Currently, there is a lack of guidance for securing IoT, IoE, and WoT as a cohesive unit. However there is appropriate documentation available through the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Federal Information Processing Systems (FIPS), Department of Defense (DoD), Institute of Electronic and Electri- calEngineers(IEEE),InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) Security Technical Implementation Guides (STIGs), and more. It will be key for the security engineer to understand how to protect these devices individually and then understand the how the devices become more vulnerable when connected. Mobile devices would need to be hardened with appropriate security controls (Dawson, Wright, & Omar, 2016; Omar & Dawson,
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 8 2013). Encryption would need to be on devices that have IoT capabilities such as refrigerators, televisions, or smart watches. This would allow the protection of data in transit and at rest. Access controls would need to be placed to ensure that other users of the hyperconnected systems to do not have With the potential threats of cyber terrorism affecting national and international security the importance of security is elevated to greater heights (Dawson, Omar, & Abramson, 2015). New threats against national infrastructure and digital crime are making researchers consider new methods of handling cyber incidents (Dawson, & Omar, 2015). It is imperative that if the government or commercial sectors want to make use of these new technological Internet and Web-enabled architectures that they are prepared to battle new threats. Currently,DoDisusinglimitedIoTtobemoreefficientincombat.Newbattlefield technology includes helmets that provide a Heads Up Display (HUDs) to provide Global Positioning System (GPS) battle mapping to integrate with other technolo- gies that provide real-time tracking of the battlefield. A potential example includes the ability to control Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAV) through sensors tied to platoon Figure 4. AIC triad
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 9 leadersratherthantheuseofaUniversalGroundControlSystem(UGCS)orPortable Ground Control System (PGCS). IoT, IoE, and WoT can place the control of tactical devices directly in the hands of those soldiers who are a front line during combat missions. In years to comes body enhancement with RFIDs and other sensors could provide situational awareness data to the soldiers and those that lead them. This data can be analyzed to maximize the effectiveness of troop movement, target location, and other activities deemed key to the mission of the military. CONCLUSION Secure computing is essential as technological environments continue to become intertwined and hyperconnected. The policies to properly secure these new en- vironments must also be explored as many of the security controls found within guidance such as the DoD focuses on singular systems and components (Dawson Jr, Crespo, & Brewster, 2013). There needs to be the creation of new controls that review embedded sensors, body modifications, and devices that fully take advan- tage of Internet-enabled technologies. With the emergence of these technologies, the possibilities are endless however there will be new vulnerabilities unexplored. REFERENCES Alvarez, P. (2004). Using extended file information (EXIF) file headers in digital evidence analysis. International Journal of Digital Evidence, 2(3), 1–5. Bradley, J., Barbier, J., & Handler, D. (2013). Embracing the Internet of everything to capture your share of $14.4 trillion. White Paper, Cisco. Dawson, M., & Omar, M. (2015). New Threats and Countermeasures in Digital Crime and Cyber Terrorism. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666- 8345-7.ch001 Dawson, M., Omar, M., & Abramson, J. (2015). Understanding the Methods behind Cyber Terrorism. In M. Khosrow-Pour (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology (3rd ed.; pp. 1539–1549). Hershey, PA: Information Science Refer- ence; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5888-2.ch147 Dawson, M., Omar, M., Abramson, J., & Bessette, D. (2014). The Future of Na- tional and International Security on the Internet. In A. Kayem & C. Meinel (Eds.), Information Security in Diverse Computing Environments (pp. 149–178). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6158-5.ch009
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 10 Dawson, M., Wright, J., & Omar, M. (2016). Mobile Devices: The Case for Cyber SecurityHardenedSystems.InMobileComputingandWirelessNetworks:Concepts, Methodologies,Tools,andApplications(pp.1103-1123).Hershey,PA:Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8751-6.ch047 Dawson, M. E. Jr, Crespo, M., & Brewster, S. (2013). DoD cyber technology poli- cies to secure automated information systems. International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management, 4(1), 1–22. doi:10.1504/IJBCRM.2013.053089 Evans, D. (2012). The internet of everything: How more relevant and valuable con- nections will change the world. Cisco IBSG, 1-9. Gartner. (2014, August 11). Gartner’s 2014 Hype Cycle for Emerging Technologies Maps the Journey to Digital Business. Retrieved February 28, 2016, from http:// www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2819918 Gubbi, J., Buyya, R., Marusic, S., & Palaniswami, M. (2013). Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions. Future Generation Computer Systems, 29(7), 1645–1660. doi:10.1016/j.future.2013.01.010 Guinard, D. (2011). A web of things application architecture-Integrating the real- world into the web. (Doctoral dissertation). ETH Zurich. Guinard, D., & Trifa, V. (2009, April). Towards the web of things: Web mashups for embedded devices. In Workshop on Mashups, Enterprise Mashups and Lightweight CompositionontheWeb(MEM2009),inproceedingsofWWW(InternationalWorld Wide Web Conferences),(p. 15). Harris, S., & Meyers, M. (2002). CISSP. McGraw-Hill/Osborne. International Telecommunication Union. (2012a). ITU-T recommendation Y.2060: Series Y: Global information infrastructure, internet protocol aspects and next- generation networks: Frameworks and functional architecture models: Overview of the Internet of Things. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union. International Telecommunication Union. (2012b). ITU-T recommendation Y.2063: Series Y: Global information infrastructure, internet protocol aspects and next- generation networks: Frameworks and functional architecture models: Framework of the Web of Things. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union. International Telecommunication Union. (2012c). ITU-T recommendation Y.2069: Series Y: Global information infrastructure, internet protocol aspects and next- generation networks: Frameworks and functional architecture models: Terms and definitions for the Internet of Things. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union.
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 11 Kirk,J.(2012).Pacemakerhackcandeliverdeadly830-voltjolt.Computerworld,17. Mehlman, M., Lin, P., & Abney, K. (2013). Enhanced Warfighters: Risk, Ethics, and Policy. Case Legal Studies Research Paper, (2013-2). Norton, Q. (2007). The Next Humans: Body Hacking and Human Enhancement. O’Reilly Emerging Technology Conference. Omar, M., & Dawson, M. (2013, April). Research in Progress-Defending Android Smartphones from Malware Attacks. In Advanced Computing and Communication Technologies(ACCT),2013ThirdInternationalConferenceon(pp.288-292).IEEE. doi:10.1109/ACCT.2013.69 Popper, S., Bankes, S., Callaway, R., & DeLaurentis, D. (2004). System-of-Systems Symposium: Report on a Summer Conversation. Arlington, VA: Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. Ranadivé, V. (2013, February 19). Hyperconnectivity: The Future is Now. Retrieved March 21, 2016, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/vivekranadive/2013/02/19/ hyperconnectivity-the-future-is-now/#401d45d26b9f Richardson, C. (n.d.). Critical Infrastructure Protection. Alternative Energy CBRN Defense Critical Infrastructure Protection, 13. Tešić, J. (2005). Metadata practices for consumer photos. MultiMedia, IEEE, 12(3), 86–92. doi:10.1109/MMUL.2005.50 Thierer, A. D. (2015). The internet of things and wearable technology: Addressing privacy and security concerns without derailing innovation. Adam Thierer, The Internet of Things and Wearable Technology: Addressing Privacy and Security Concerns without Derailing Innovation, 21. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Authentication:Securitymeasuredesignedtoestablishthevalidityofatransmis- sion, message, or originator, or a means of verifying an individual’s authorization to receive specific categories of information (Harris, 2002). Availability: Timely, reliable access to data and information services for autho- rized users (Harris, 2002). Confidentiality: Assurance that information is not disclosed to unauthorized individuals, processes, or devices (Harris, 2002).
Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 12 Hyperconnectivity: Use of multiple means of communications such as instant messaging, phones, Web 2.0, Web 3.0, and other communication methods. Integrity: Quality of an IS reflecting the logical correctness and reliability of the OS; the logical completeness of the hardware and software implementing the protection mechanisms; and the consistency of the data structures and occurrence of the stored data. Note that, in a formal security mode, integrity is interpreted more narrowly to mean protection against unauthorized modification or destruction of information (Harris, 2002). Internet of Everything: Consists of four grouping with are data, things, people, and process (Bradley, Barbier, & Handler, 2013). Internet of Things: A global infrastructure for information society enabling services by interconnecting physical and virtual things based on existing and evolv- ing interoperable ICT (International Telecommunication Union, 2012). Non-Repudiation: Assurance the sender of data is provided with proof of de- livery and the recipient is provided with proof of the sender’s identity, so neither can later deny having processed the data (Harris, 2002). OpenSourceIntelligence:Intelligencecollectedfrompubliclyavailablesources. Web of Things: Refers to making use of the IoT in order for (physical and vir- tual) things to be connected and controlled via the world wide web (International Telecommunication Union, 2012).

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Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things, Internet of Everything, Web of Things, and Hyperconnectivity

  • 1. Copyright ©2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0741-3.ch001 Chapter 1 1 Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things, Internet of Everything, Web of Things, and Hyperconnectivity ABSTRACT Secure computing is essential as environments continue to become intertwined and hyperconnected. As the Internet of Things (IoT), Web of Things (WoT), and the Internet of Everything (IoE) dominate the landscape of technological platforms, protectionthesecomplicatednetworksisimportant.Theeverydaypersonwhowishes to have more devices that allow the ability to be connected needs to be aware of what threats they could be potentially exposing themselves to. Additionally, for the unknowing consumer of everyday products needs to be aware of what it means to have sensors, Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID), Bluetooth, and WiFi enabled products. This submission explores how Availability, Integrity, and Confidentiality (AIC) can be applied to IoT, WoT, and IoE with consideration for the application of these architectures in the defense sector. Maurice Dawson University of Missouri – St. Louis, USA
  • 2. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 2 INTRODUCTION The next era of computing will be outside of the traditional desktop (Gubbi, Buyya, Marusic,&Palaniwami,2013).WhenyouconsiderBringYourOwnDevice(BYOD) asaradicalstepimagineusingdevicessuchasarefrigeratorthatcontainanembedded computing device to track the quantity of groceries within. This embedded device would allow access to email, weather, and other devices that allow connectivity through WiFi, or some Application Programming Interface (API) to a web based application. Thus, the data collected would be weather, thermostat cooling patterns, foods purchased, the cost of items per month, average consumption, and more. This massive amount of data that can also be collected means there has to be the large place that this data is stored. At the moment organizations such as Cisco Systems and others are pushing for IoT, and IoT but none has a plan for ensuring Information Assurance (IA) posture is maintained during various modes of operation. HYPERCONNECTIVITY Hyperconnectivityisagrowingtrendthatisdrivingcybersecurityexpertstodevelop new security architectures for multiple platforms such as mobile devices, laptops, and even wearable displays (Dawson, Omar, Abramson, & Bessette, 2014). The futures of both national and international security rely on complex countermeasures to ensure that a proper security posture is maintained during this state of hyper- connectivity. To protect these systems from the exploitation of vulnerabilities, it is essential to understand current and future threats to include the instructions, laws, policies, mandates, and directives that drive their need to be secured. It is impera- tive to understand the potential security-related threats with the use of social media, mobile devices, virtual worlds, augmented reality, and mixed reality. In an article published by Forbes, a contributor describes the concept of hyper- connectivity in six different scenarios (Ranadivé, 2013). These events range from energy to hospitality. In health-care there would be real time monitoring through wrist monitors that the medical staff could monitor to get instantaneous feeds on patients that are real time. They would be able to foresee problems before they occur or receive alerts during various events. Imagine a pregnant woman that is having early complications could be monitored first through a wristband that delivers real- time patient information wirelessly. Whendiscussinghyperconnectivity,itisnecessarytoexaminesystemsofsystems concepts. Systems of systems is a collection of systems tied together to create a more complex system (Popper, Bankes, Callaway, & DeLaurentis, 2004). When thinking about the possibilities of hyperconnectivity the Personal Area Network (PAN) is
  • 3. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 3 an excellent example as it allows multiple technologies to be interconnected with soil ware applications. The Google Glass has the potential to all Global Positioning System (GPS), social media, digital terrain overlays, and synchronization with other devices. This increases the complexity of the system as it becomes part of larger systems which multiplies the number of potential vulnerabilities. INTERNET OF THINGS IoT is a global infrastructure for information society enabling services by intercon- necting physical and virtual things based on existing and evolving interoperable Information Communication Technologies (ICT) (International Telecommunica- tion Union, 2012). Gartner has developed a figure which displays the hype cycle of emerging technologies. This hype circle shows the expectations on the y-axis where on the x-axis time is displayed [See Figure 1]. The time shown is the innovation trigger, the peak of inflated expectations, the trough of disillusionment, slope of enlightenment, and plateau of productivity (Gartner, 2014). What the figure fails to provide is anything associated with security about the technologies identified. The figure simply shows the cycle of emerging technologies with time corresponding to expectations. Figure 1. Gartner 2014 hype cycle of emerging technologies (Source: Gartner Inc.)
  • 4. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 4 WEB OF THINGS The WoT is a continued vision that describes concepts where everyday objects are fully integrated into the World Wide Web (WWW). This concept focused on embedded computing devices that enable communication with WWW. The devices can ring from refrigerators to mobile devices with integrated with the Web through an API (Guinard & Trifa, 2009). The Social WoT offers opportunities to use social connections and underlying social graphs to share digital artifacts (Guinard, 2011). This would help bridge a gap between social networks and networks of objects trans- forming communication. Figure 2 displays the WoT architecture and the detailed layers it is comprised of. Figure 2. Building the web of things
  • 5. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 5 This bridge between social connections and basic things could allow for a plethora of data that can be analyzed unlike before. When looking at the networked things you can see the multiple of different technologies can be enabled in WoT. When looking at Layer 1, you can immediately see items that are a cause of prob- lems. For examples, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) and JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) contain known vulnerabilities. In current social networks, geolo- cation provides individuals exact location. However, anyone that develops an ap- plication using this API can tweak items providing, even more, the granularity of its users. Even without modification of Tweets only adding the location will provide details such as neighborhood, city, state, or country. This publication information can be used to start an analysis. In iOS version 6.26+ and Android version 5.55+ precise location can be shared if elected to do so. Also, third party applications or websites may share specific Tweet locations as well. Various social media accounts provide the ability to associate a particular lo- cation. This position over time can provide trends of sites visited with time/date stamps. This can be used to start developing a full analysis on Tweeting trends from particular locations, frequency of location visits, and content analysis through text mining. Exchange Image File Format (EXIF) data is a standard that specifies the formats for images, sounds, and ancillary tags used by digital cameras. The EXIF digital image standard defines the following; the basic structure of digital image data files, labels and JPEG marker segments the conventional uses, and how to de- fine and management format versions (Tešić, 2005). Research has been conducted on how to extract efficiently EXIF data for prosecuting those involved in child pornography (Alvarex, 2004). In Layer 3, some of these concerns can be appropriately addressed. In this layer controls can be made for the ability to share content. Content can be tagged with a severity and classification to have automatically a security feature added. If the data were Personal Identifiable Information (PII) then the data would have encryption, and access controls that only allow certain individuals to obtain it. That data could be sent wireless over a Bluetooth enabled device or a medical beacon. INTERNET OF EVERTHING TheIoEconsistsoffourgroupingwitharedata,things,people,andprocess(Bradley, Barbier, & Handler, 2013). IoE leverages data as a means to make more insightful decisions. IoT plays a significant role in the things of IoE as this is the network of physical devices and objects connected to the Internet for decisions making. The IoE connects people in more valuable and relevant ways. The process is the last part which is delivering the correct information to the right entity at the right time.
  • 6. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 6 Researchers at Cisco Systems estimate that over 99 percent of physical devices are still unconnected and that there is a market of $14.4 trillion. This white paper urges business leaders to transform their organizations based on key learnings to be competitive for the future. (Evans, 2012). IoE is comprised of four key things which are people, data, and things built on the process. The model IoE is made up of three types of connections: People to Machine (P2M), Machine to Machine (M2), and People to People (P2P). BODY HACKING AND ENHANCEMENT One of the newest trends in staying connected is human enhancement through body hacking (Nortol, 2007). This involves individuals placing RFID chips into their bodies. These RFID components are associated with unique ID numbers that can be used for unlocking doors, logistical tracking, embedded electronics, e-government, and more. The use for e-government would allow interaction between government Figure 3. The what, where, and how of the Internet of everything (Source: Cisco IBSG, 2012)
  • 7. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 7 and outside groups through the connected body parts. A health organization could monitor the status of a group through embedded chips or other devices connected to an individual or group. The issues surrounding body hacking is the lack of security controls associated withmakingthesemods.Earlywhendiscussedinthischapterwashyperconnectivity, IoT, and IoE to provide an overview of these various technological concepts. When adding more connectivity to systems the complexity increases thus it becomes more difficult to protect effectively from potential threats. For items such a pacemakers it has already been proven to be hackable (Kirk, 2012; Richardson, n.d.). In the report Enhanced Warfighters: Risk, Ethics, and Policy (2013) that is pre- pared for The Greenwall Foundation discussed is the findings of using technology for soldiers. As other technologies are emerging within the United States (U.S.), a military sector so is robotics, Artificial Intelligence (AI), human enhancement technologies, other cyber capabilities. The issues surrounding human enhancement technologies among other items are the operational, ethical, and legal implications (Mehlman, Lin, P., & Abney, 2013). Regarding risks, those identified are about the technology falling into the wrong hands allowing for reverse engineering. Reverse engineering would allow non-friendlies to develop similar technologies on their own to rival those found on the warfighters. SECURITY AND PRIVACY As a new wave of Internet-enabled technologies arrive, it is imperative tounderstand fully the security and privacy concerns (Thierer, 2015). And understanding these concernsalsomeansunderstandinghowtoappropriatelyapplyIAcontrolstosystems. Addressing security objectives appropriately will allow for risks to be mitigated. This means following the principles of security to ensure IA posture is achieved. With all of these connected devices using proven standards, policies, and guid- ance can help with the ease of integrating these technologies into everyday life. Currently, there is a lack of guidance for securing IoT, IoE, and WoT as a cohesive unit. However there is appropriate documentation available through the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Federal Information Processing Systems (FIPS), Department of Defense (DoD), Institute of Electronic and Electri- calEngineers(IEEE),InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) Security Technical Implementation Guides (STIGs), and more. It will be key for the security engineer to understand how to protect these devices individually and then understand the how the devices become more vulnerable when connected. Mobile devices would need to be hardened with appropriate security controls (Dawson, Wright, & Omar, 2016; Omar & Dawson,
  • 8. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 8 2013). Encryption would need to be on devices that have IoT capabilities such as refrigerators, televisions, or smart watches. This would allow the protection of data in transit and at rest. Access controls would need to be placed to ensure that other users of the hyperconnected systems to do not have With the potential threats of cyber terrorism affecting national and international security the importance of security is elevated to greater heights (Dawson, Omar, & Abramson, 2015). New threats against national infrastructure and digital crime are making researchers consider new methods of handling cyber incidents (Dawson, & Omar, 2015). It is imperative that if the government or commercial sectors want to make use of these new technological Internet and Web-enabled architectures that they are prepared to battle new threats. Currently,DoDisusinglimitedIoTtobemoreefficientincombat.Newbattlefield technology includes helmets that provide a Heads Up Display (HUDs) to provide Global Positioning System (GPS) battle mapping to integrate with other technolo- gies that provide real-time tracking of the battlefield. A potential example includes the ability to control Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAV) through sensors tied to platoon Figure 4. AIC triad
  • 9. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 9 leadersratherthantheuseofaUniversalGroundControlSystem(UGCS)orPortable Ground Control System (PGCS). IoT, IoE, and WoT can place the control of tactical devices directly in the hands of those soldiers who are a front line during combat missions. In years to comes body enhancement with RFIDs and other sensors could provide situational awareness data to the soldiers and those that lead them. This data can be analyzed to maximize the effectiveness of troop movement, target location, and other activities deemed key to the mission of the military. CONCLUSION Secure computing is essential as technological environments continue to become intertwined and hyperconnected. The policies to properly secure these new en- vironments must also be explored as many of the security controls found within guidance such as the DoD focuses on singular systems and components (Dawson Jr, Crespo, & Brewster, 2013). There needs to be the creation of new controls that review embedded sensors, body modifications, and devices that fully take advan- tage of Internet-enabled technologies. With the emergence of these technologies, the possibilities are endless however there will be new vulnerabilities unexplored. REFERENCES Alvarez, P. (2004). Using extended file information (EXIF) file headers in digital evidence analysis. International Journal of Digital Evidence, 2(3), 1–5. Bradley, J., Barbier, J., & Handler, D. (2013). Embracing the Internet of everything to capture your share of $14.4 trillion. White Paper, Cisco. Dawson, M., & Omar, M. (2015). New Threats and Countermeasures in Digital Crime and Cyber Terrorism. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666- 8345-7.ch001 Dawson, M., Omar, M., & Abramson, J. (2015). Understanding the Methods behind Cyber Terrorism. In M. Khosrow-Pour (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology (3rd ed.; pp. 1539–1549). Hershey, PA: Information Science Refer- ence; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5888-2.ch147 Dawson, M., Omar, M., Abramson, J., & Bessette, D. (2014). The Future of Na- tional and International Security on the Internet. In A. Kayem & C. Meinel (Eds.), Information Security in Diverse Computing Environments (pp. 149–178). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6158-5.ch009
  • 10. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 10 Dawson, M., Wright, J., & Omar, M. (2016). Mobile Devices: The Case for Cyber SecurityHardenedSystems.InMobileComputingandWirelessNetworks:Concepts, Methodologies,Tools,andApplications(pp.1103-1123).Hershey,PA:Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8751-6.ch047 Dawson, M. E. Jr, Crespo, M., & Brewster, S. (2013). DoD cyber technology poli- cies to secure automated information systems. International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management, 4(1), 1–22. doi:10.1504/IJBCRM.2013.053089 Evans, D. (2012). The internet of everything: How more relevant and valuable con- nections will change the world. Cisco IBSG, 1-9. Gartner. (2014, August 11). Gartner’s 2014 Hype Cycle for Emerging Technologies Maps the Journey to Digital Business. Retrieved February 28, 2016, from http:// www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2819918 Gubbi, J., Buyya, R., Marusic, S., & Palaniswami, M. (2013). Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions. Future Generation Computer Systems, 29(7), 1645–1660. doi:10.1016/j.future.2013.01.010 Guinard, D. (2011). A web of things application architecture-Integrating the real- world into the web. (Doctoral dissertation). ETH Zurich. Guinard, D., & Trifa, V. (2009, April). Towards the web of things: Web mashups for embedded devices. In Workshop on Mashups, Enterprise Mashups and Lightweight CompositionontheWeb(MEM2009),inproceedingsofWWW(InternationalWorld Wide Web Conferences),(p. 15). Harris, S., & Meyers, M. (2002). CISSP. McGraw-Hill/Osborne. International Telecommunication Union. (2012a). ITU-T recommendation Y.2060: Series Y: Global information infrastructure, internet protocol aspects and next- generation networks: Frameworks and functional architecture models: Overview of the Internet of Things. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union. International Telecommunication Union. (2012b). ITU-T recommendation Y.2063: Series Y: Global information infrastructure, internet protocol aspects and next- generation networks: Frameworks and functional architecture models: Framework of the Web of Things. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union. International Telecommunication Union. (2012c). ITU-T recommendation Y.2069: Series Y: Global information infrastructure, internet protocol aspects and next- generation networks: Frameworks and functional architecture models: Terms and definitions for the Internet of Things. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union.
  • 11. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 11 Kirk,J.(2012).Pacemakerhackcandeliverdeadly830-voltjolt.Computerworld,17. Mehlman, M., Lin, P., & Abney, K. (2013). Enhanced Warfighters: Risk, Ethics, and Policy. Case Legal Studies Research Paper, (2013-2). Norton, Q. (2007). The Next Humans: Body Hacking and Human Enhancement. O’Reilly Emerging Technology Conference. Omar, M., & Dawson, M. (2013, April). Research in Progress-Defending Android Smartphones from Malware Attacks. In Advanced Computing and Communication Technologies(ACCT),2013ThirdInternationalConferenceon(pp.288-292).IEEE. doi:10.1109/ACCT.2013.69 Popper, S., Bankes, S., Callaway, R., & DeLaurentis, D. (2004). System-of-Systems Symposium: Report on a Summer Conversation. Arlington, VA: Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. Ranadivé, V. (2013, February 19). Hyperconnectivity: The Future is Now. Retrieved March 21, 2016, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/vivekranadive/2013/02/19/ hyperconnectivity-the-future-is-now/#401d45d26b9f Richardson, C. (n.d.). Critical Infrastructure Protection. Alternative Energy CBRN Defense Critical Infrastructure Protection, 13. Tešić, J. (2005). Metadata practices for consumer photos. MultiMedia, IEEE, 12(3), 86–92. doi:10.1109/MMUL.2005.50 Thierer, A. D. (2015). The internet of things and wearable technology: Addressing privacy and security concerns without derailing innovation. Adam Thierer, The Internet of Things and Wearable Technology: Addressing Privacy and Security Concerns without Derailing Innovation, 21. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Authentication:Securitymeasuredesignedtoestablishthevalidityofatransmis- sion, message, or originator, or a means of verifying an individual’s authorization to receive specific categories of information (Harris, 2002). Availability: Timely, reliable access to data and information services for autho- rized users (Harris, 2002). Confidentiality: Assurance that information is not disclosed to unauthorized individuals, processes, or devices (Harris, 2002).
  • 12. Exploring Secure Computing for the Internet of Things 12 Hyperconnectivity: Use of multiple means of communications such as instant messaging, phones, Web 2.0, Web 3.0, and other communication methods. Integrity: Quality of an IS reflecting the logical correctness and reliability of the OS; the logical completeness of the hardware and software implementing the protection mechanisms; and the consistency of the data structures and occurrence of the stored data. Note that, in a formal security mode, integrity is interpreted more narrowly to mean protection against unauthorized modification or destruction of information (Harris, 2002). Internet of Everything: Consists of four grouping with are data, things, people, and process (Bradley, Barbier, & Handler, 2013). Internet of Things: A global infrastructure for information society enabling services by interconnecting physical and virtual things based on existing and evolv- ing interoperable ICT (International Telecommunication Union, 2012). Non-Repudiation: Assurance the sender of data is provided with proof of de- livery and the recipient is provided with proof of the sender’s identity, so neither can later deny having processed the data (Harris, 2002). OpenSourceIntelligence:Intelligencecollectedfrompubliclyavailablesources. Web of Things: Refers to making use of the IoT in order for (physical and vir- tual) things to be connected and controlled via the world wide web (International Telecommunication Union, 2012).