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EvidenceforhowlearningoccursfromtheDelphiPanelofExperts2016-2017
InternationalStudy(41expertsin11countries)-Part1
Tokuhama-Espinosa(2017)availableon:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315779095_Delphi_Panel_on_Mind_Brain_and_Education_2016_RESULTS
Principles
(evidenceforallbrains)
Tenets(evidenceforallbrain
butwithgreathumanvariance)
1.UNIQUENESS:Humanbrainsareuniqueas
humanfaces.Whilethebasicstructureof
mosthumans’brainsisthesame(similar
partsinsimilarregions),notwobrainsare
identical.Thegeneticmake-upuniqueto
eachpersoncombineswithlifeexperiences
andfreewilltoshapeneuralpathways.
•Motivationinfluenceslearning,(however,whatmotivatesoneperson
andhowmaynotmotivateanotherinthesameway).
•Emotionsandcognitionaremutuallyinfluential.Notallstimuliresult
inthesameaffectivestateforallpeople.
•Stressinfluenceslearning(butwhatstressesonepersonandhow
maynotstressanotherinthesameway).
2.DIFFERENTPOTENTIALS:Eachindividual’s
brainisdifferentlypreparedtolearndiffer-
enttasks.Learningcapacitiesareshapedby
thecontextofthelearning,priorlearning
experiences,personalchoice,anindividu-
al’sbiologyandgeneticmake-up,pre-and
peri-natalevents,andenvironmentalexpo-
sures.
•Anxietyinfluenceslearning(butwhatcausesanxietyinoneperson
maynotcauseanxietyinanother).
•Depressioninfluenceslearning(butwhatcausesdepressioninone
personmaynotcausedepressioninanother).
•Learningisinfluencedbybothchallengeandthreatasperceivedby
thelearner.Whatapersonfindschallengingorthreateningishighlyin-
dividualizedasaretheirreactionstothestimuli.
3.PRIOREXPERIENCE:Newlearning
isinfluencedbypriorexperience.Theeffi-
ciencyofthebraineconomizeseffortand
energybyensuringthatexternalstimuli
arefirstdecoded,compared,bothpassively
andactively,withexistingmemories.
•Reactionstofacialexpressionsarehighlyindividualized:theyreflect
priorexperience,bothpersonalandinresponsetoculturalexpecta-
tions.
•Thebraininterpretstonesofvoicesunconsciouslyandalmostimme-
diately,however,thereactiontothetonesofvoicesisbasedinparton
priorexperienceandthereforeindividualized.
•Humansaresocialbeingswholearnfromandwitheachother.Social
interactionsinfluencelearning.Differentamountsofsocialinteractions
aroundlearningaredesiredbydifferentpeople.
4.CONSTANTCHANGESINTHEBRAIN:The
brainchangesconstantlywithexperience.
Thebrainisacomplex,dynamic,integrated
systemthatisconstantlychangedbyindi-
vidualexperiences.Thesechangesoccurat
amolecularleveleithersimultaneously,in
parallel,orevenbeforetheyarevisiblein
behaviobehavior.
•Attentionisacomplexphenomenoncomprisedofmultiplesystems
(supportingfunctionssuchasmetacognition,self-reflection,mindful-
nessandmeditationaswellasstatesofhighalertness,selectiveatten-
tionandfocusedattention),whichworktodifferentdegreesindiffer-
entrelationshipswithoneanother.
•Mostlearningdoesnotnecessarilyoccurlinearly,butratheradvances
andretractsbasedonstagesofgrowth,reflectionandtheamountof
repetitiontowhichoneisexposed.
•Learninginvolvesconsciousandunconsciousprocesses,whichmay
differbyindividualsbasedontheirtrainingandotherindividualexperi-
ences.Learningisalsodescribedasimplicit(passiveorunawarepro-
cesses)andexplicit(activeorawareprocesses).
EvidenceforhowlearningoccursfromtheDelphiPanelofExperts2016-2017
InternationalStudy(41expertsin11countries)-Part2
Tokuhama-Espinosa(2017)availableon:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315779095_Delphi_Panel_on_Mind_Brain_and_Education_2016_RESULTS
Principles
(evidenceforallbrains)
Tenets(evidenceforallbrain
butwithgreathumanvariance)
5.PLASTICITY:Thebrainisplastic.Neuroplas-
ticityexiststhroughoutthelifespanthough
therearenotabledevelopmentaldifferences
byage.
•Learningisdevelopmental(natureandnurture)aswellasexperien-
tial(nurture):aperson’sage,cognitivestageofdevelopmentandpast
experiencesallcontributetolearninganddosodifferentlyforeach
person.
•Learningengagestheentirephysiology:thebodyandbraininteract
toplayaroleinlearningprocesses.
•Sleepanddreaminginfluencelearningindifferentways:sufficient
6.MEMORY+ATTENTION=LEARNING:There
isnonewlearningwithoutsomeformof
memoryandsomeformofattention.Most
schoollearningrequireswell-functioning
short,workingandlong-termmemorysys-
temsandconsciousattention.However,
procedurallearning,habituation,sensitiza-
tionandevenepisodicmemorycanoccur
withoutconsciousattention.
•Nutritioninfluenceslearning.Basicnutritionalneedsarecommonto
allhumans,thoughtherearevariationsinthefrequencyoffoodintake
andsomedietaryneeds,whichareuniquetoindividuals.
•Physicalactivityinfluenceslearning,however,differentindividuals
needdifferentamountsofphysicalactivitytoperformoptimally.Inter-
spersingphysicalandcognitiveactivitymayimprovelearning.
•Useitorloseit:Brainsthatremainactivecognitivelyhelpdevelop•Useitorloseit:Brainsthatremainactivecognitivelyhelpdevelop-
mentandcanalsostaveoffcognitivedeclineintheagingbrain,howev-
er,individualvariations,includingexperiencesandgeneticpredisposi-
tions,influencethefinaloutcomesofinterventions.
•Feedbackaboutlearningprogressinfluenceslearningoutcomes.
Feedbackitselfcanbeasourceoflearning.Thetype,frequency,anduse
offeedbackcaninfluencelearningoutcomes,whichcanalsovarybyin-
dividual.
•Itiseasiertoretrievememorieswhenfactsandskillshavebeenem-
beddedinindividuallyrelevantandmeaningfulcontexts(however,
whatisrelevantormeaningfulvariesbyindividual).
•Brainsdetectnoveltyandseekoutpatterns(however,whatisnovel
orrecognizedasapatterntooneindividualmaynotbenovelormay
Formoreinformation,contactTraceyTokuhama-Espinosa,Ph.D.
tracey.tokuhama@gmail.com
Connections:TheLearningSciencesPlatform
www.thelearningsciences.com

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