Collecting qual data
- 2. Slide 2
MANG6129
You familiar with these terms??
• Population
• Sample
• Probability and Non-probability sampling
• Primary Data & Secondary Data
- 3. Slide 3
MANG6129
Qualitative data collection methods
• Observation
• Interviews & Focus Groups
• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)
• Life Histories
• Narrative / story telling
• Secondary qualitative data
• Multiple Methods
- 4. Slide 4
MANG6129
What will be your data collection
method ?
• Purpose of your research
• How much time you have
• Your personal characteristics
• Organisational access
• Ethical considerations
- 6. Slide 6
MANG6129
Who and how many?
• Non-probability sampling
– Purposive sampling
– Snowball sampling
– Convenience sampling
– Quota sampling
Saunders et al (2009)
- 8. Slide 8
MANG6129
Observation
• Observational techniques are methods by which an
individual or individuals gather first hand data on
events, processes, or behaviours.
• Observer can use senses and technology to recoded
events , process or behaviours.
• Extended period of time
- 10. Slide 10
MANG6129
Advantages of observation
• Explains ‘what is going on here?’
• Heightens researcher awareness
• Useful in researcher’s own organisation
• Experience emotions ‘for real’
• Lots of useful data
- 11. Slide 11
MANG6129
Disadvantages of observation
• ‘Observer effect’
• Very time consuming
• Ethical dilemmas
• Role conflict (researcher vs colleague)
• Observer bias (going native)
• Very demanding (physically and emotionally)
• Access issues
• Data recording difficulties
- 13. Slide 13
MANG6129
Interviews
• Definition
– A purposeful discussion between two or more people
• Use in research:
– Preliminary: helps to clarify issues when formulating
research proposals
– Data gathering: provides rigorous data for subsequent
analysis
– Validation: helps to explore whether research
conclusions are reasonable
- 15. Slide 15
MANG6129
Structured Interviews
• All questions (and most responses) are pre-determined
• Researcher is administering a questionnaire
• Approaches - Face-to-face, telephone, webcam
• Gathering structured data:
– Higher response rate than postal questionnaires
– Researcher has ability to clarify questions, not
possible with questionnaire
– No unexpected issues can be explored
- 16. Slide 16
MANG6129
Semi-structured Interviews
• Based on list of themes & issues
– Used to focus discussion
• No rigid list is adhered to
• Approach - Face-to-face
• List of themes may be advised to interviewee
• Usually more emergent, less pre-defined, data
• Flexibility to explore particular and/or unexpected issues
- 17. Slide 17
MANG6129
Unstructured Interviews
• Based on ideas of issues, but no list of questions or
themes
• Mostly face-to-face
• Non-directive: researcher follows issues and themes as
they emerge
• In-depth: research may concentrate on key emergent
issues without feeling need to cover pre-determined list
of questions/themes
- 18. Slide 18
MANG6129
Focus Groups
• Also called “Group Interview”
• Unstructured & Free flowing
• Research = Facilitator
– Raise questions, let the group discuss
• Multiple views
• Group evaluation
• Identify key themes
• Potential problem of ‘group think’
- 19. Slide 19
MANG6129
Types of questions…
•Closed vs. open
– Where do you live?
– What time is it?
– Are you happy with your current supplier?
– Would you like to find a better supplier?
http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm
- 20. Slide 20
MANG6129
Types of questions…
• Who, why, where, when, how and what
• Closed vs. open
– What did you do on you holidays?
– How do you keep focused on your work?
– Why is that so important to you?
– How have you been after your operation?
http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm
- 21. Slide 21
MANG6129
Types of questions…
To Do
•Probing… ‘can you tell me more about that?’
•Active listening… ‘so what you’re saying is…’
Avoid
•Loaded/biased
•Double barrelled
Saunders et al (2009)
- 22. Slide 22
MANG6129
Practical Issues
• Location
• Recording data
– Tape/video recording
• Gives accurate account
• Can concentrate on questioning & listening;
• BUT… intrusive?
– Note taking
• Difficulty of writing, listening, and questioning
• Taking notes after the interview may be dangerous, as relying
on “accurate” memory
• Transcription
• Feeding back results
- 24. Slide 26
MANG6129
Some other tips for interviews
• Do a pilot study or interview a ‘critical friend’
• Allow plenty of travel time
• Take the respondent’s contact details with you
• Remember notes, pens, tape recorder, spare batteries, etc,
etc.
• Remember… the interview doesn’t finish until you leave the
premises
• Agree post-interview actions
- 25. Slide 27
MANG6129
Reflexive diaries
• Daily record of actions, events, thoughts
• Quantitative (logs) or qualitative (diaries)
• Alternative to direct observation
• Issues of bias, motivation, misreporting
• Use as a basis for subsequent in-depth interviews
Hussey & Hussey (1997, pp.153-155)
- 26. Slide 28
MANG6129
Photo/video diaries
Photos: Emma Lynch via http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/americas_harvest_in_caracas/html/1.stm.
Photo journal: Harvest in Caracas
Changing the way Venezuelan city dwellers
think about food through the creation of organic
urban gardens to promote self-sufficiency
- 28. Slide 30
MANG6129
Life Histories
• Unstructured interviews combined with
personal documents (diaries, letters, photos)
• Look back in detail over an entire life course
• Try to make sense of their organisational
reality
Bryman and Bell (2003)
- 29. Slide 31
MANG6129
Narrative in Research
• Originates in linguistics
• Used as research method & tool in
various disciplines including:
– Information Systems, Accounting,
Economics, Organisational Behaviour
• At the extreme end of qualitative research
- 30. Slide 32
MANG6129
Aims of Narrative Research
• Gain insight into participant’s experience of an event and how they
make sense of it (Organisational Sensemaking – Weick, 1995)
– Imposes order on experiences, events, actions, and the relationship
between them
• Gather different perspectives about the same event
• Understanding interdependency between numerous social factors
and the change that underpins the complexity
• Telling and analysis of stories
• Good for uncovering deep understanding of politics or culture
• Very subjective, requires understanding of context
- 31. Slide 33
MANG6129
Online Narrative Resources…
• The Center for Narrative Studies
– http://www.storywise.com/
• Organizational Storytelling
– http://www.organizational-storytelling.org.uk/
- 32. Slide 34
MANG6129
Secondary qualitative data
• Data has already been collected
– Large surveys
– Commercial databases
– Qualidata, UK Data Archive, Economic and Social
Data Service (www.qualidata.ac.uk)
– http://www.esds.ac.uk/search/allSearch.asp?
ct=xmlAll&q1=&Submit1=GO&zoom_cat=-
1&zoom_and=1
– http://www.soton.ac.uk/library/catalogues/index.shtmlSee Saunders et al (2009) Chapter 8, esp. pp.267-268.
- 33. Slide 35
MANG6129
Other secondary sources
• Personal documents, letters, e-mails
• Historical diaries
• Autobiographies
• In-house publications
• Legal records
• Minutes of meetings
• Blogs / Social networking / Twitter... ???
- 35. Slide 37
MANG6129
Secondary qualitative data
• Disadvantages
– Purpose of original collection may not match research objective –
context specific
– Access to this data may be restricted
– Type of data may not match research purpose exactly
– Quality of data (check for authenticity and credibility)
- 36. Slide 38
MANG6129
Other considerations
•
• Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies
mono method
(single data collection
and analysis procedure)
multiple methods
(more than one data collection
and analysis procedure)
Vs.
Saunders et al (2009, pp.151-156)