Joris Koornneef

Underground hydrogen storage will be an essential part of the future hydrogen infrastructure to provide flexibility and security of supply. Storage in porous reservoirs should complement storage in salt caverns to be able to meet the projected high levels of required storage capacities. To assess its techno-economic feasibility, a case study of hydrogen storage in a depleted gas field in the Netherlands is developed. Subsurface modelling is performed and various surface facility design concepts… Meer weergeven

Underground hydrogen storage will be an essential part of the future hydrogen infrastructure to provide flexibility and security of supply. Storage in porous reservoirs should complement storage in salt caverns to be able to meet the projected high levels of required storage capacities. To assess its techno-economic feasibility, a case study of hydrogen storage in a depleted gas field in the Netherlands is developed. Subsurface modelling is performed and various surface facility design concepts are investigated to calculate the levelized cost of hydrogen storage (LCOHS). Our base case with hydrogen as cushion gas results in an LCOHS of 0.79 EUR/kg (range of 0.58–1.04 EUR/kg). Increasing the number of full-cycle equivalents from 1 to 6 lowers the storage cost to 0.25 EUR/kg. The investment cost of the cushion gas represents 76% of the total cost. With nitrogen as cushion gas, LCOHS is reduced to 0.49 EUR/kg (range of 0.42–0.56 EUR/kg) Minder weergeven

Flexibility of energy supply and demand becomes increasingly important with increasing shares of intermittent renewable electricity generation. Energy storage is one of the candidates to provide the required flexibility to the electricity system. Against this background, the Energy Transition Ex-pertise Centre was asked to deliver a study on energy storage to improve the understanding of energy storage technologies, their business case, and best practices for enabling the development of energy… Meer weergeven

Flexibility of energy supply and demand becomes increasingly important with increasing shares of intermittent renewable electricity generation. Energy storage is one of the candidates to provide the required flexibility to the electricity system. Against this background, the Energy Transition Ex-pertise Centre was asked to deliver a study on energy storage to improve the understanding of energy storage technologies, their business case, and best practices for enabling the development of energy storage capacities. Minder weergeven

An integrated vision and roadmap are needed to unlock the North Sea’s climate-neutral energy potential while optimising its value for society and nature. There is a need for information on the current role and future potential of energy supply, transportation, demand, conversion, and storage in the North Sea. Then, actions are needed in the short term to enable the integration of the energy system. Such a roadmap can provide clarity and certainty to policymakers, project developers, and… Meer weergeven

An integrated vision and roadmap are needed to unlock the North Sea’s climate-neutral energy potential while optimising its value for society and nature. There is a need for information on the current role and future potential of energy supply, transportation, demand, conversion, and storage in the North Sea. Then, actions are needed in the short term to enable the integration of the energy system. Such a roadmap can provide clarity and certainty to policymakers, project developers, and society. Within the consortium, we have formulated the North Sea Energy Roadmap, consisting of an integrated vision, pathways leading there, and an Action Agenda for all North Sea stakeholders. Minder weergeven

Europe has large ambitions to develop both offshore wind and green hydrogen production as a part of the realization of the climate targets. In Europe’s North Seas region, The North Seas Energy Cooperation (NSEC) supports and facilitates the development of the large renewable energy potential in the region. The nine NSEC countries have agreed to reach at least 76 GW of offshore wind by 2030, and 193 GW by 2040, 260 GW of offshore wind energy by 20502. It will be a challenge to incorporate these… Meer weergeven

Europe has large ambitions to develop both offshore wind and green hydrogen production as a part of the realization of the climate targets. In Europe’s North Seas region, The North Seas Energy Cooperation (NSEC) supports and facilitates the development of the large renewable energy potential in the region. The nine NSEC countries have agreed to reach at least 76 GW of offshore wind by 2030, and 193 GW by 2040, 260 GW of offshore wind energy by 20502. It will be a challenge to incorporate these amounts of electricity into the European energy systems. The use of renewable electricity for water electrolysis provides an additional route to make this possible. Large scale hydrogen production, particularly offshore, is not yet a mature technology, however. TNO advises the NSEC countries to intensify its collaboration on jointly exploiting the North Sea as an energy source on the following topics, with offshore hydrogen production enabling large scale, offshore wind deployment: 1)Innovation and knowledge sharing, 2) Supply chain security, 3) Infrastructure, 4) Spatial claim and ecological impact, 5) Legislation, and ) 6 A common hydrogen market. Minder weergeven

The European Commission’s hydrogen strategy presented in July 2020 outlines, amongst other elements, how to upscale the demand and supply of renewable hydrogen. It has set the strategic objective to install at least 40 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolyser capacity within the EU (producing about 5 Mt of renewable hydrogen) based upon an estimated demand of up to 10 Mt per year of renewable hydrogen in the EU by 2030. To produce 10 Mt of renewable hydrogen, a substantial amount of additional… Meer weergeven

The European Commission’s hydrogen strategy presented in July 2020 outlines, amongst other elements, how to upscale the demand and supply of renewable hydrogen. It has set the strategic objective to install at least 40 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolyser capacity within the EU (producing about 5 Mt of renewable hydrogen) based upon an estimated demand of up to 10 Mt per year of renewable hydrogen in the EU by 2030. To produce 10 Mt of renewable hydrogen, a substantial amount of additional renewable electricity will be needed to produce renewable hydrogen, on top of the large amounts of renewable electricity that will be needed to electrify end-uses that are currently served by other energy carriers. The characteristics of renewable electricity generation, such as its variability and the time needed to realize additional solar and wind parks, the need to minimise the costs of the energy transition, and security of supply considerations require taking an in-depth look into the role of renewable hydrogen import (infrastructure) as well as into the role of hydrogen storage (infrastructure) to decarbonize the EU economy. At the moment, it is not clear whether domestic production of hydrogen will achieve the strategic EU 2030 goal to cover 10 Mt of renewable hydrogen demand, leading to the potential need for imports. Therefore, this research paper intends to assess the supply gaps and possible options for cost-effective renewable hydrogen carriers imports and transport modes, given the broad diversity of potential supply scenarios. Minder weergeven

The main objectives of the HEATSTORE project
are to lower the cost, reduce risks, improve the
performance of high temperature (~25°C to ~90°C)
underground thermal energy storage (HT-UTES)
technologies and to optimize heat network demand
side management (DSM). This is primarily achieved by 6
new demonstration pilots and 8 case studies of existing
systems with distinct configurations of heat sources,
heat storage and heat utilization. This will advance
the commercial… Meer weergeven

The main objectives of the HEATSTORE project
are to lower the cost, reduce risks, improve the
performance of high temperature (~25°C to ~90°C)
underground thermal energy storage (HT-UTES)
technologies and to optimize heat network demand
side management (DSM). This is primarily achieved by 6
new demonstration pilots and 8 case studies of existing
systems with distinct configurations of heat sources,
heat storage and heat utilization. This will advance
the commercial viability of HT-UTES technologies
and, through an optimized balance between supply,
transport, storage and demand, enable geothermal
energy production to reach its maximum deployment
potential in the European energy transition. Minder weergeven

This report summarizes experiences and lessons learned on Underground Thermal Energy
Storage (UTES) systems from the participating EU project partners and is supplemented with input
from publications on other relevant cases in, and outside, Europe.

The report covers important experiences from the first pre-investigation phase and feasibility
studies and throughout the construction phase, system integration and operations. Furthermore,
different national legislative, political… Meer weergeven

This report summarizes experiences and lessons learned on Underground Thermal Energy
Storage (UTES) systems from the participating EU project partners and is supplemented with input
from publications on other relevant cases in, and outside, Europe.

The report covers important experiences from the first pre-investigation phase and feasibility
studies and throughout the construction phase, system integration and operations. Furthermore,
different national legislative, political and public issues are described.
The HEATSTORE project and this report comprise four different UTES systems:
 High Temperature Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (HT-ATES)
 Borehole Thermal Energy Storage (BTES)
 Pit Thermal Energy Storage (PTES)
 Mine Thermal Energy Storage (MTES) Minder weergeven

The North Sea Energy program (NSE) investigates opportunities for climate synergies that arise when making smart connections between offshore wind energy and existing gas infrastructures. In particular, we assess various technical options that provide system linkage of offshore oil and gas infrastructures with those of wind energy. For these options the technical, environmental, societal, regulatory and economic feasibility has been explored. The analyses show that economically and… Meer weergeven

The North Sea Energy program (NSE) investigates opportunities for climate synergies that arise when making smart connections between offshore wind energy and existing gas infrastructures. In particular, we assess various technical options that provide system linkage of offshore oil and gas infrastructures with those of wind energy. For these options the technical, environmental, societal, regulatory and economic feasibility has been explored. The analyses show that economically and environmentally meaningful options are on the horizon.
The North Sea Energy program offers new perspectives on offshore system integration. The consequences for use of space, costs and benefits for the environment, the impact of system integration on different economic sectors and stakeholders, and the impact on the labor market are good examples. In this phase of the programme the focus is on the case-specific perspective where three system integration options are combined (parallel or consecutive): platform electrification followed by power-to-hydrogen and CO2 transport and storage. For three selected sites in the Dutch North Sea we have examined several research themes to discover the merits and challenges of offshore system integration from a technical, economic, environmental and regulatory perspective.
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Het NSE-programma biedt nieuwe inzichten door offshore systeemintegratie vanuit verschillende kanten te belichten. De gevolgen voor ruimtegebruik, kosten en baten voor het milieu, de impact van systeemintegratie op verschillende economische sectoren en belanghebbenden, en de impact op de arbeidsmarkt zijn hier goede voorbeelden van. Ondanks dat het NSE-programma nog maar net is gestart laat het al een beeld van synergieën zien die bij een integraal plan voor de energietransitie op de Noordzee… Meer weergeven

Het NSE-programma biedt nieuwe inzichten door offshore systeemintegratie vanuit verschillende kanten te belichten. De gevolgen voor ruimtegebruik, kosten en baten voor het milieu, de impact van systeemintegratie op verschillende economische sectoren en belanghebbenden, en de impact op de arbeidsmarkt zijn hier goede voorbeelden van. Ondanks dat het NSE-programma nog maar net is gestart laat het al een beeld van synergieën zien die bij een integraal plan voor de energietransitie op de Noordzee in meer of mindere mate kunnen worden gerealiseerd. Minder weergeven

The interactive online North Sea Energy Atlas has been developed to illustrate new perspectives for the current and future offshore energy system. It includes current energy flows from wind power and, oil and gas production, and how these are transported to land. It also maps out the potential infrastructure for hydrogen and carbon storage. The North Sea Energy Atlas provides a complete and coherent overview of all North Sea activities in terms of energy, shipping, fisheries, ecology and… Meer weergeven

The interactive online North Sea Energy Atlas has been developed to illustrate new perspectives for the current and future offshore energy system. It includes current energy flows from wind power and, oil and gas production, and how these are transported to land. It also maps out the potential infrastructure for hydrogen and carbon storage. The North Sea Energy Atlas provides a complete and coherent overview of all North Sea activities in terms of energy, shipping, fisheries, ecology and defence. Minder weergeven

Op verzoek van de Waddenacademie heeft TNO het rapport Warmtevraag en geothermie potentieel in het Waddengebied opgesteld. Het rapport informeert overheden, bedrijfsleven, maatschappelijke organisaties en kennisinstellingen in de drie Waddenprovincies over de vraag of, en zo ja in welke mate, bodemwarmte een bijdrage kan leveren aan de energietransitie in de Wadden provincies van fossiel naar duurzaam. Het rapport biedt een compleet overzicht van alle aspecten van warmtevraag en geothermie… Meer weergeven

Op verzoek van de Waddenacademie heeft TNO het rapport Warmtevraag en geothermie potentieel in het Waddengebied opgesteld. Het rapport informeert overheden, bedrijfsleven, maatschappelijke organisaties en kennisinstellingen in de drie Waddenprovincies over de vraag of, en zo ja in welke mate, bodemwarmte een bijdrage kan leveren aan de energietransitie in de Wadden provincies van fossiel naar duurzaam. Het rapport biedt een compleet overzicht van alle aspecten van warmtevraag en geothermie potentieel, specifiek gericht op de mogelijkheden ervan in het gehele Waddengebied. Minder weergeven

The European Association for Storage of Energy, has published its position paper 'Thermal Energy Storage' (TES). The paper outlines the technology and explains how the heating and cooling sector is important for the transition to a low-carbon energy system. Three concrete short-term actions are proposed that can support the EU’s goals to empower consumers, improve energy efficiency, and decarbonise the energy sector in a cost-effective way.

System integration between the offshore gas infrastructure and offshore wind, can offer significant
economic and ecologic benefits compared to separate development. These result from lower
development and operational costs for both offshore wind and gas, a higher market value through
increased flexibility, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and accelerated wind deployment. In order
to realise these benefits strategic decisions need to be made that should be coordinated between
the… Meer weergeven

System integration between the offshore gas infrastructure and offshore wind, can offer significant
economic and ecologic benefits compared to separate development. These result from lower
development and operational costs for both offshore wind and gas, a higher market value through
increased flexibility, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and accelerated wind deployment. In order
to realise these benefits strategic decisions need to be made that should be coordinated between
the offshore wind, offshore gas sector, government and other stakeholders. Yet a systematic
overview and evaluation of the available system integration options is lacking, as well as sufficient
insight in which choices need to be made on the short and medium term what are possible consequences.
This project provides an overview of possible offshore energy system integration options, with their main
opportunities and challenges with a qualitative evaluation to form a basis for defining development
strategies. The aim of this report is to produce an informative and well-balanced overview of the
main options and evaluation aspect Minder weergeven

In the current situation, the main players in the offshore energy domain, the gas sector on one hand and the wind energy sector on the other hand, are largely operating in rather separate worlds. Overall operational efficiency, economics and environmental performance could be significantly improved by (partly) sharing infrastructure, offshore services, human capital, products and knowledge. Such an integrated energy system would allow for optimizing the efficiency of the system and make it more… Meer weergeven

In the current situation, the main players in the offshore energy domain, the gas sector on one hand and the wind energy sector on the other hand, are largely operating in rather separate worlds. Overall operational efficiency, economics and environmental performance could be significantly improved by (partly) sharing infrastructure, offshore services, human capital, products and knowledge. Such an integrated energy system would allow for optimizing the efficiency of the system and make it more robust regarding security of supply, as well as more flexible in coping with fluctuations in supply and demand. For these reason, system integration in the offshore energy domain is unavoidable. Successful system integration can only be achieved if common drivers of the stakeholders can be identified. The report identifies these drivers and outlines a broad innovation project on System Integration Offshore Energy, including innovation themes that are relevant for offshore energy system integration in which a joint effort by stakeholders can tackle challenges and create opportunities in the pre-competitive domain. Minder weergeven

The main objective of this feasibility study is to develop an initial design including a set of boundary conditions for the integration of an High Temperature Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (HT-ATES) with the existing district heating system and heat source (AVR Duiven). This would enable a mutually beneficial solution for the efficient use of AVR’s facility and seasonal buffering of heat provision to district heating reducing the need for operating fossil fired peak installations.

The goal for the client was to arrive at a quantitative understanding of the vulnerability of the energy system to climate change. Ecofys, TNO and Deltares carried out a comprehensive study to gather data on cooling water use in the energy sector, including refineries, petrochemical sector and the power sector. The study includes a comprehensive data gathering campaign by approaching the corresponding sector organisations (including CONCAWE, CEFIC and Eurelectric) as well as specific companies… Meer weergeven

The goal for the client was to arrive at a quantitative understanding of the vulnerability of the energy system to climate change. Ecofys, TNO and Deltares carried out a comprehensive study to gather data on cooling water use in the energy sector, including refineries, petrochemical sector and the power sector. The study includes a comprehensive data gathering campaign by approaching the corresponding sector organisations (including CONCAWE, CEFIC and Eurelectric) as well as specific companies in these sectors. A series of workshops and interviews were held with key players in these sectors. A comprehensive data gathering campaign covering the EU28 countries was carried out in cooperation with sector organisations and various national water authorities. A literature survey supported the development of a dedicated model for cooling water use to estimate values where no actual data was available. All information is organised in a comprehensive geographical database. Minder weergeven

To increase the likelihood of a successful deployment of CCS, the various stakeholders in the
Netherlands should agree on a CCS Implementation Plan. In such a plan, the main steps in
developing and deploying CCS needs to be described, including the prime stakeholders
responsible for carrying out the identified actions. CATO is currently drafting such CCS Implementation Plan, including a CCS roadmap. In this report we adress 6 major topics that cover a wide range of aspects relevant for… Meer weergeven

To increase the likelihood of a successful deployment of CCS, the various stakeholders in the
Netherlands should agree on a CCS Implementation Plan. In such a plan, the main steps in
developing and deploying CCS needs to be described, including the prime stakeholders
responsible for carrying out the identified actions. CATO is currently drafting such CCS Implementation Plan, including a CCS roadmap. In this report we adress 6 major topics that cover a wide range of aspects relevant for the further development and deployment of CCS. Minder weergeven

The primary objective was to provide members of the Steering Group with a planning
tool, which would allow them to form a common view on the economics of alternative
shared transport and storage options in the North Sea that could support large scale
demonstration and early commercial projects in Rotterdam, Eemshaven and Antwerp on
a network basis. This would also provide a basis for engaging with government and
other key CCS stakeholders on the formulating regional and national… Meer weergeven

The primary objective was to provide members of the Steering Group with a planning
tool, which would allow them to form a common view on the economics of alternative
shared transport and storage options in the North Sea that could support large scale
demonstration and early commercial projects in Rotterdam, Eemshaven and Antwerp on
a network basis. This would also provide a basis for engaging with government and
other key CCS stakeholders on the formulating regional and national plans to resolve
current barriers to investment. Minder weergeven

The goal of this study is to analyse which of the two marine CO2 transport options, pipeline or ship, is the financially preferred option given the presence of uncertainties within CCS projects conditions.
The overall approach is based on comparing the Net Present Value (NPV) of the two CO2 marine transport options under the prevailing uncertain conditions. We study the impact of uncertainties in the transport fee, project duration and transported volumes on the NPV.

This research aimed to deliver a framework that can be used to identify useful policy approaches
for a specific country to overcome barriers and/or to enhance drivers for the development and
diffusion of Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS). The technology implies that
carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and may result in negative greenhouse gas
emissions.

This paper reports the development of a tool to assess the environmental performance of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) chains. The environmental assessment is done for the whole CCS chain. The tool has been designed to produce transparent and traceable results and is easy to work with. The tool is meant for a broad group of stakeholders for assessing CCS chains on their environmental performance. It provides insights into the environmental performance of CCS chains by using a… Meer weergeven

This paper reports the development of a tool to assess the environmental performance of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) chains. The environmental assessment is done for the whole CCS chain. The tool has been designed to produce transparent and traceable results and is easy to work with. The tool is meant for a broad group of stakeholders for assessing CCS chains on their environmental performance. It provides insights into the environmental performance of CCS chains by using a learning-by-doing experience for users. It allows both knowledge sharing and stakeholder engagement so that view points of stakeholders are better understood and decision making on the deployment of CCS can be improved. Minder weergeven

This study performs an assessment of existing LCA literature to obtain insights into potential environmental impacts over the complete life cycle of fossil fuel fired power plants with CCS. CCS results in a net reduction of the GWP of power plants through their life cycle in the order of 65–84% (PC-CCS), 68–87% (IGCC-CCS), 47–80% (NGCC-CCS), and 76–97% (Oxyfuel). The results show a lower performance for NGCCs on GWP, although in absolute terms, the GWP of NGCCs with CCS appears in the same… Meer weergeven

This study performs an assessment of existing LCA literature to obtain insights into potential environmental impacts over the complete life cycle of fossil fuel fired power plants with CCS. CCS results in a net reduction of the GWP of power plants through their life cycle in the order of 65–84% (PC-CCS), 68–87% (IGCC-CCS), 47–80% (NGCC-CCS), and 76–97% (Oxyfuel). The results show a lower performance for NGCCs on GWP, although in absolute terms, the GWP of NGCCs with CCS appears in the same order of magnitude as PC-CCS (76–245 gCO2eq/kWh vs. 79–275 gCO2eq/kWh in PC-CCS). This is due to upstream emissions in NGCC chains. Deploying CCS in PC, IGCC and NGCC results in relative increases in eutrophication and acidification when comparing to power plants without CCS. The limited available LCA literature on oxyfuel with CCS shows this technology as generating the lowest relative increases in the environmental impact categories. For power plants without CCS, direct emissions account as the main contributor to GWP, acidification and eutrophication while for power plants with CCS, indirect emissions appear as the main contributor to GWP, acidification and human toxicity potential. The highly relative importance of emissions occurring upstream (e.g. coal mining, coal transport, MEA production) and downstream (e.g., CO2 transport, CO2 storage) when assessing the environmental performance of power plants with CCS implies the need for optimal designs of CCS chains to also include up- and downstream processes. Minder weergeven

Biomass in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one of few options that make a reduction of global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere possible. This option is likely to be required to meet climate targets. This study shows the global potential for combining bio-energy conversion with CCS (BE-CCS) up to 2050. The assessment focuses on two BE-CCS routes for the production of biomethane, based on gasification and anaerobic digestion. Routes for the production of power and liquid… Meer weergeven

Biomass in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one of few options that make a reduction of global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere possible. This option is likely to be required to meet climate targets. This study shows the global potential for combining bio-energy conversion with CCS (BE-CCS) up to 2050. The assessment focuses on two BE-CCS routes for the production of biomethane, based on gasification and anaerobic digestion. Routes for the production of power and liquid fuels have been addressed in an earlier study by IEAGHG. For the two routes the technical and economic potential was analysed. The results show that deployment of the global technical potential can result in negative greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) up to 3.5 Gt CO2-eq. on an annual basis in 2050. Including avoided emissions by replacing natural gas, the annual greenhouse gas emission savings could add up to almost 8 Gt of CO2-eq in 2050. The economic potential reaches up to 0.8 Gt of negative GHG emissions when assuming a CO2 price of 50 €/tonne Minder weergeven

Biomass in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is one of few options that makes an actual reduction of global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere possible and is likely to be required to meet low atmospheric concentration of CO2. This study shows the global potential for combining biomass with CCS technologies (bio-CCS) up to 2030 and 2050. The assessment includes six bio-CCS routes for the production of power and biofuels in combination with CCS. For these routes we… Meer weergeven

Biomass in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is one of few options that makes an actual reduction of global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere possible and is likely to be required to meet low atmospheric concentration of CO2. This study shows the global potential for combining biomass with CCS technologies (bio-CCS) up to 2030 and 2050. The assessment includes six bio-CCS routes for the production of power and biofuels in combination with CCS. For these routes we have analysed the technical and economic potential. The results show the global technical potential for bio-CCS technologies is large and, if deployed, can result in negative greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) up to 10.4 Gt CO2 eq. on an annual basis in 2050. This is a large reduction potential compared to the global energy-related CO2 emissions which grew to 30.6 Gt CO2 in 2010. The economic potential reaches up to 3.5 Gt of negative GHG emissions when assuming a CO2 price of 50 €/tonne. Next to quantitative estimates of these potentials in the form of global cost supply curves, we present recommendations to overcome possible barriers and enhance drivers to stimulate the deployment of bio-CCS technologies Minder weergeven

Together with Carbon Trust, Ecofys developed a methodology that allows the UK to assess cost and benefits of nationally deployed Carbon Capture and Storage. Thanks to the model it is possible to estimate the overall deployment cost of CCS in the UK and estimate the overall value of innovation for the UK. The results indicate that innovation across the CCS technology chain could reduce UK energy system costs by £10-45bn to 2050.

The methodology was created as part of a Technology… Meer weergeven

Together with Carbon Trust, Ecofys developed a methodology that allows the UK to assess cost and benefits of nationally deployed Carbon Capture and Storage. Thanks to the model it is possible to estimate the overall deployment cost of CCS in the UK and estimate the overall value of innovation for the UK. The results indicate that innovation across the CCS technology chain could reduce UK energy system costs by £10-45bn to 2050.

The methodology was created as part of a Technology Innovations Needs Assessment (TINA). TINAs have been developed for several low carbon technologies in order to prioritize technologies and R&D programmes with the greatest impact on meeting the UK government’s climate change and energy objectives.

The TINA for CCS that Carbon Trust and Ecofys developed, forecasts the cost and performance of CCS technologies in the power sector towards 2050. The methodology incorporates innovations - and associated cost and performance development – in energy conversion, CO2 capture, compression, transport and offshore storage. For these parts in the CCS chain, the competitive advantage for the UK’s private sectors and the global market share that could be covered by the UK industry was estimated. Minder weergeven

IEA’s CCS Technology Roadmap (2009) describes a scenario in which up to 150 GtCO2 will be stored by 2050. To achieve this, CCS activities has to grow from practically zero nowadays to about 850 installations by 2030 and 3,400 installations in 2050. To reach such ambition, adequate policies and regulation have to be in place in time. In addition, the development of efficient, environmental friendly and safe technology, and complex organisational issues need to be adequately addressed. However… Meer weergeven

IEA’s CCS Technology Roadmap (2009) describes a scenario in which up to 150 GtCO2 will be stored by 2050. To achieve this, CCS activities has to grow from practically zero nowadays to about 850 installations by 2030 and 3,400 installations in 2050. To reach such ambition, adequate policies and regulation have to be in place in time. In addition, the development of efficient, environmental friendly and safe technology, and complex organisational issues need to be adequately addressed. However, technologies with a rapid implementation acceleration can experience severe constraints related to their supply chain so that it is able to deliver the required quantities on time and at acceptable costs.
In this study, we assess possible supply chain constraints if CCS is deployed according to the IEA CCS Roadmap. We study physical constraints (equipment, materials) as well as possible constraints in skills and services (human resources).
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The publication is the first joint report by two EU technology platforms: the Zero Emissions Platform (ZEP) and the European Biofuels Technology Platform (EBTP). The Bio-CCS Joint Taskforce brought together high-level experts on CCS and biomass from across Europe to deliver a report showing that technologies removing CO2 from the atmosphere can be a reality.
The report underlines that Bio-CCS and negative emissions can make an important contribution to the fight against climate change. It… Meer weergeven

The publication is the first joint report by two EU technology platforms: the Zero Emissions Platform (ZEP) and the European Biofuels Technology Platform (EBTP). The Bio-CCS Joint Taskforce brought together high-level experts on CCS and biomass from across Europe to deliver a report showing that technologies removing CO2 from the atmosphere can be a reality.
The report underlines that Bio-CCS and negative emissions can make an important contribution to the fight against climate change. It suggests that, by 2050, the technical potential for negative emissions in Europe, i.e. converting all available European sustainable biomass in combination with CCS, could amount to 800 Mt CO2 removed annually.The report concludes that Bio-CCS deployed within a portfolio of other low-carbon technologies could result in industry sectors with an overall negative carbon footprint. Minder weergeven

Keywords: Environmental impact, risk assessment, CCS, CO2 capture, CO2 transport, CO2 storage,

In this study, we identify and characterize known and new environmental consequences associated with CO2 capture from power plants, transport by pipeline and storage in geological formations. We have reviewed (analogous) environmental impact assessment procedures and scientific literature on carbon capture and storage (CCS) options. It is investigated whether crucial knowledge on… Meer weergeven

Keywords: Environmental impact, risk assessment, CCS, CO2 capture, CO2 transport, CO2 storage,

In this study, we identify and characterize known and new environmental consequences associated with CO2 capture from power plants, transport by pipeline and storage in geological formations. We have reviewed (analogous) environmental impact assessment procedures and scientific literature on carbon capture and storage (CCS) options. It is investigated whether crucial knowledge on environmental impacts is lacking that may postpone the implementation of CCS projects. This review shows that the capture of CO2 from power plants results in a change in the environmental profile of the power plant. The largest trade-offs are found for the emission of NOx and NH3 when equipping power plants with post-combustion capture. Synergy is expected for SO2 emissions.
An increase in water consumption and an increase in waste and by-product creation is expected, but exact flows and composition are uncertain. The cross-media effects of CO2 capture are found to be uncertain and to a large extent not quantified. For the assessment of the safety of CO2 transport by pipeline at high pressure an important knowledge gap is the absence of validated release and dispersion models for CO2 releases. Furthermore, uniform CO2 exposure thresholds, detailed dose response models and specific CO2 pipeline regulation are absent. Most gaps in environmental information regarding the CCS chain are identified and characterized for the risk assessment of the underground, non-engineered, part of the storage activity. In conclusion, it is not possible to execute a quantitative risk assessment for the non-engineered part of the storage activity with high confidence.
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The deployment of CO2 capture at power plants and large industrial sources may influence local and transboundary air pollution, i.e. the emission of key atmospheric emissions such as SO2, NOX, NH3, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), and Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10). Both positive as negative impacts on overall air quality when applying CCS are being suggested in the literature. The scientific base supporting both viewpoints is rapidly advancing. The potential interaction between CO2… Meer weergeven

The deployment of CO2 capture at power plants and large industrial sources may influence local and transboundary air pollution, i.e. the emission of key atmospheric emissions such as SO2, NOX, NH3, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), and Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10). Both positive as negative impacts on overall air quality when applying CCS are being suggested in the literature. The scientific base supporting both viewpoints is rapidly advancing. The potential interaction between CO2 capture and air quality targets is crucial as countries are currently developing GHG mitigation action plans. External and unwanted trade-offs regarding air quality as well as co-benefits when implementing CCS should be known before rolling out this technology on a large scale, This is the subject of this chapter. Minder weergeven

Biomass in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is one of few options that makes an actual reduction of global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere possible and is likely to be required to meet low atmospheric concentration of CO2. This study shows the global potential for combining biomass with CCS technologies (Bio-CCS) up to 2030 and 2050. The assessment includes six Bio-CCS routes for the production of power and biofuels in combination with CCS. For these routes we… Meer weergeven

Biomass in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is one of few options that makes an actual reduction of global CO2 concentration in the atmosphere possible and is likely to be required to meet low atmospheric concentration of CO2. This study shows the global potential for combining biomass with CCS technologies (Bio-CCS) up to 2030 and 2050. The assessment includes six Bio-CCS routes for the production of power and biofuels in combination with CCS. For these routes we have analysed the technical, realisable and economic potential. The results show the global technical potential for Bio-CCS technologies is large and, if deployed, can result in negative greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) up to 10.4 Gt CO2 eq. on an annual basis in 2050. This is a large reduction potential compared to the global energy-related CO2 emissions which grew to 30.6 Gt in 2010. The realisable potential is found to be maximally 3.2 Gt and the economic potential reaches up to 3.5 Gt of negative GHG emissions. Next to quantitative estimates of these potentials in the form of global cost supply curves, we present recommendations to overcome possible obstacles and enhance drivers to stimulate the deployment of Bio-CCS technologies. Minder weergeven

Uniting top academic and industry researchers in the search for commercial concepts for CCS at power plants, this reference focuses on power plant technology and ways to improve efficiency.
It details the three principal ways of capturing the CO2 produced in power plants: oxyfuel combustion, postcombustion and precombustion, with the main part concentrating on the different approaches to removing carbon dioxide. With an eye on safety, the authors explain how the three parts of the CCS chain… Meer weergeven

Uniting top academic and industry researchers in the search for commercial concepts for CCS at power plants, this reference focuses on power plant technology and ways to improve efficiency.
It details the three principal ways of capturing the CO2 produced in power plants: oxyfuel combustion, postcombustion and precombustion, with the main part concentrating on the different approaches to removing carbon dioxide. With an eye on safety, the authors explain how the three parts of the CCS chain work -- capture, transport and storage -- and how they can be performed safely.

The result is specific insights for process engineers, chemists, physicists and materials engineers in their relevant fields, as well as a sufficiently broad scope to be able to understand the opportunities and implications of the other disciplines.
Minder weergeven

What are the excess costs of a separate 20% target for renewable energy as a part of the EU climate policy for 2020? We answer this question using a computable general equilibrium model, WorldScan, which has been extended with a bottom-up module of the electricity sector. The model set-up makes it possible to base the calibration directly on available estimates of costs and capacity potentials for renewable energy sources. In our base case simulation, the costs of EU climate policy with the… Meer weergeven

What are the excess costs of a separate 20% target for renewable energy as a part of the EU climate policy for 2020? We answer this question using a computable general equilibrium model, WorldScan, which has been extended with a bottom-up module of the electricity sector. The model set-up makes it possible to base the calibration directly on available estimates of costs and capacity potentials for renewable energy sources. In our base case simulation, the costs of EU climate policy with the renewables target are 6% higher than those of a policy without this target. The uncertainty in this estimate is considerable, however, and depends on our assumptions about the availability of low-cost renewable energy: the initial cost level, the steepness of the supply curves and share of renewable energy in the baseline. Within the range we explore, the excess costs vary from zero (when the target is not a binding constraint) to 32% (when the cost progression and the initial cost disadvantage for renewable energy are high and its initial share is low). Minder weergeven

Greenhouse gas emissions are expected to result in global climate change with potentially severe consequences for ecosystems and mankind. In this perspective, greenhouse gas emissions from using fossil fuels should be restrained and the strong link between our energy supply and CO2 emissions should be broken. One of the possible options to achieve this can be carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS). However, the introduction of CCS should meet criteria concerning the economy, environment and… Meer weergeven

Greenhouse gas emissions are expected to result in global climate change with potentially severe consequences for ecosystems and mankind. In this perspective, greenhouse gas emissions from using fossil fuels should be restrained and the strong link between our energy supply and CO2 emissions should be broken. One of the possible options to achieve this can be carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS). However, the introduction of CCS should meet criteria concerning the economy, environment and society in order to be acceptable for large scale implementation. In this dissertation Joris Koornneef discusses the Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE) impacts of carbon dioxide capture, transport and storage. Health, safety and environmental impacts have been quantified and important knowledge gaps have been identified and discussed. He has done this with the use of methodologies drawn from several scientific disciplines. This includes a risk assessment for CO2 pipelines, an environmental life cycle assessment and a scenario model for the assessment of European air quality in 2030. In addition, a review framework has been applied to assess the knowledge base for Environmental Impact Assessments of CCS projects. The results show that depending on the CCS technology chosen, significant environmental trade-offs and synergies can be expected when capturing CO2, transporting it by pipeline and injecting it into the underground. Hence the title: Shifting Streams. Minder weergeven

A part of CATO2 Work package 4.3 aims to find insights in the environmental impacts of carbon
capture and storage chains. Certain environmental themes of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
technologies such as the emissions related to the production and use of solvents, waste & byproduct formation, emissions to water and water consumption are relatively less investigated in
the pertaining literature and have not been highlighted in existing overview studies up to now.
It is the goal… Meer weergeven

A part of CATO2 Work package 4.3 aims to find insights in the environmental impacts of carbon
capture and storage chains. Certain environmental themes of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
technologies such as the emissions related to the production and use of solvents, waste & byproduct formation, emissions to water and water consumption are relatively less investigated in
the pertaining literature and have not been highlighted in existing overview studies up to now.
It is the goal of this paper to review the existing data on these aspects for CO2 capture
technologies applied on power plants. The review is based on a literature review and is provided
with information from ongoing projects to indicate the current standings of knowledge on the
subject. Minder weergeven

A systematic assessment, based on an extensive literature review, of the impact of gaps and uncertainties on the results of quantitative risk assessments (QRAs) for CO2 pipelines is presented. Sources of uncertainties that have been assessed are: failure rates, pipeline pressure, temperature, section length, diameter, orifice size, type and direction of release, meteorological conditions, jet diameter, vapour mass fraction in the release and the dose–effect relationship for CO2. A sensitivity… Meer weergeven

A systematic assessment, based on an extensive literature review, of the impact of gaps and uncertainties on the results of quantitative risk assessments (QRAs) for CO2 pipelines is presented. Sources of uncertainties that have been assessed are: failure rates, pipeline pressure, temperature, section length, diameter, orifice size, type and direction of release, meteorological conditions, jet diameter, vapour mass fraction in the release and the dose–effect relationship for CO2. A sensitivity analysis with these parameters is performed using release, dispersion and impact models. The results show that the knowledge gaps and uncertainties have a large effect on the accuracy of the assessed risks of CO2 pipelines. In this study it is found that the individual risk contour can vary between 0 and 204 m from the pipeline depending on assumptions made. In existing studies this range is found to be between <1 m and 7.2 km. Mitigating the relevant risks is part of current practice, making them controllable. It is concluded that QRA for CO2 pipelines can be improved by validation of release and dispersion models for high-pressure CO2 releases, definition and adoption of a universal dose–effect relationship and development of a good practice guide for QRAs for CO2 pipelines. Minder weergeven

This study quantifies the trade-offs and synergies between climate and air quality policy objectives for the European power and heat (P&H) sector. An overview is presented of the expected performance data of CO2 capture systems implemented at P&H plants, and the expected emission of key air pollutants, being: SO2, NOX, NH3, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM). The CO2 capture systems investigated include: post-combustion, oxyfuel combustion and pre-combustion… Meer weergeven

This study quantifies the trade-offs and synergies between climate and air quality policy objectives for the European power and heat (P&H) sector. An overview is presented of the expected performance data of CO2 capture systems implemented at P&H plants, and the expected emission of key air pollutants, being: SO2, NOX, NH3, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM). The CO2 capture systems investigated include: post-combustion, oxyfuel combustion and pre-combustion capture.

For all capture systems it was found that SO2, NOx and PM emissions are expected to be reduced or remain equal per unit of primary energy input compared to power plants without CO2 capture. Increase in primary energy input as a result of the energy penalty for CO2 capture may for some technologies and substances result in a net increase of emissions per kWh output. The emission of ammonia may increase by a factor of up to 45 per unit of primary energy input for post-combustion technologies. No data are available about the emission of VOCs from CO2 capture technologies.

A simple model was developed and applied to analyse the impact of CO2 capture in the European P&H sector on the emission level of key air pollutants in 2030. Four scenarios were developed: one without CO2 capture and three with one dominantly implemented CO2 capture system, varying between: post-combustion, oxyfuel combustion and pre-combustion. Minder weergeven

The Dutch research programme on air and climate (BOLK) identifies gaps in the knowledge on synergies and trade-offs between climate measures and emissions of air pollutants, and attempts to fill these gaps. This knowledge is used to support Dutch policy development on air and climate change.The programme includes research into the effects on air pollutants from applying biofuels in traffic, biomass and biofuels in stationary installations, and carbon capture and storage in power generation and… Meer weergeven

The Dutch research programme on air and climate (BOLK) identifies gaps in the knowledge on synergies and trade-offs between climate measures and emissions of air pollutants, and attempts to fill these gaps. This knowledge is used to support Dutch policy development on air and climate change.The programme includes research into the effects on air pollutants from applying biofuels in traffic, biomass and biofuels in stationary installations, and carbon capture and storage in power generation and industry.
In the first phase, an inventory (literature survey, expert interviews) has been carried out of the knowledge that exists on the synergies and trade-offs of the before mentioned three specific climate measures, including life-cycle aspects of biofuels and biomass.The main outcome was that climate measures, such as those implementing the use of biofuels and biomass, and carbon capture and storage, will not necessarily lead to a reduction in the emission of air pollutants. In addition, the emission of certain air pollutants could even increase.
The second phase comprises additional literature surveys, expert interviews, modelling and in-depth analysis with the aim to solve the most important knowledge gaps that were identified in the first phase. Part of the results of phase 2 is already available in the following reports. An updated analysis of the overall effect on air pollutants of the whole Dutch climate policy plan ‘Clean and Efficient’ is expected by mid 2010. Minder weergeven

The Dutch research programme on air and climate (BOLK) identifies gaps in the knowledge on synergies and trade-offs between climate measures and emissions of air pollutants, and attempts to fill these gaps. This knowledge is used to support Dutch policy development on air and climate change.The programme includes research into the effects on air pollutants from applying biofuels in traffic, biomass and biofuels in stationary installations, and carbon capture and storage in power generation and… Meer weergeven

The Dutch research programme on air and climate (BOLK) identifies gaps in the knowledge on synergies and trade-offs between climate measures and emissions of air pollutants, and attempts to fill these gaps. This knowledge is used to support Dutch policy development on air and climate change.The programme includes research into the effects on air pollutants from applying biofuels in traffic, biomass and biofuels in stationary installations, and carbon capture and storage in power generation and industry.
In the first phase, an inventory (literature survey, expert interviews) has been carried out of the knowledge that exists on the synergies and trade-offs of the before mentioned three specific climate measures, including life-cycle aspects of biofuels and biomass.The main outcome was that climate measures, such as those implementing the use of biofuels and biomass, and carbon capture and storage, will not necessarily lead to a reduction in the emission of air pollutants. In addition, the emission of certain air pollutants could even increase. Minder weergeven

This paper provides a concise insight into the application of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures for future Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) projects. Main environmental impacts allocated to the three parts of a CCS chain (capture of CO2 from power plants, transport through pipelines and onshore geological storage) are identified by reviewing analogue EIA’s.
Furthermore, bottlenecks regarding the assessment of environmental impacts and current environmental legislation are… Meer weergeven

This paper provides a concise insight into the application of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures for future Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) projects. Main environmental impacts allocated to the three parts of a CCS chain (capture of CO2 from power plants, transport through pipelines and onshore geological storage) are identified by reviewing analogue EIA’s.
Furthermore, bottlenecks regarding the assessment of environmental impacts and current environmental legislation are discussed. Finally, suggestions to overcome these bottlenecks and recommendations for future research are made. Minder weergeven

In this study the methodology of life cycle assessment has been used to assess the environmental impacts of three pulverized coal fired electricity supply chains with and without carbon capture and storage (CCS) on a cradle to grave basis. The chain with CCS comprises post-combustion CO2 capture with monoethanolamine, compression, transport by pipeline and storage in a geological reservoir. The two reference chains represent sub-critical and state-of-the-art ultra supercritical pulverized coal… Meer weergeven

In this study the methodology of life cycle assessment has been used to assess the environmental impacts of three pulverized coal fired electricity supply chains with and without carbon capture and storage (CCS) on a cradle to grave basis. The chain with CCS comprises post-combustion CO2 capture with monoethanolamine, compression, transport by pipeline and storage in a geological reservoir. The two reference chains represent sub-critical and state-of-the-art ultra supercritical pulverized coal fired electricity generation. For the three chains we have constructed a detailed greenhouse gas (GHG) balance, and disclosed environmental trade-offs and co-benefits due to CO2 capture, transport and storage. Results show that, due to CCS, the GHG emissions per kWh are reduced substantially to 243 g/kWh. This is a reduction of 78 and 71% compared to the sub-critical and state-of-the-art power plant, respectively. The removal of CO2 is partially offset by increased GHG emissions in up- and downstream processes, to a small extent (0.7 g/kWh) caused by the CCS infrastructure. An environmental co-benefit is expected following from the deeper reduction of hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride emissions. Most notable environmental trade-offs are the increase in human toxicity, ozone layer depletion and fresh water ecotoxicity potential for which the CCS chain is outperformed by both other chains. The state-of-the-art power plant without CCS also shows a better score for the eutrophication, acidification and photochemical oxidation potential despite the deeper reduction of SOx and NOx in the CCS power plant. These reductions are offset by increased emissions in the life cycle due to the energy penalty and a factor five increase in NH3 emissions. Minder weergeven

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) are procedural tools which have as goal to assess and evaluate possible environmental effects of, respectively, a proposed project or policy plan. The goal of this article is to explore possible bottlenecks in applying both the EIA and SEA procedures on Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) activities in the Netherlands, as experience is currently minimal or lacking. In this study we focus mainly on the… Meer weergeven

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) are procedural tools which have as goal to assess and evaluate possible environmental effects of, respectively, a proposed project or policy plan. The goal of this article is to explore possible bottlenecks in applying both the EIA and SEA procedures on Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) activities in the Netherlands, as experience is currently minimal or lacking. In this study we focus mainly on the institutional and procedural aspects of the screening and scoping phases of both procedures. This is achieved by reviewing EIA and SEA procedures for analogue projects for the three distinctive process steps of a CCS project, namely the power plant with capture, the transport and finally the underground storage of the CO2. Additionally, EIA and SEA or similar procedures on CCS in other countries are reviewed and the legal framework for the Dutch EIA and SEA is studied. This article shows a concise overview of the EIA and SEA procedure in the Netherlands and the relation between both procedures. Based on our findings we have constructed a conceptual taxonomy for the scope of both procedures for CCS in the Netherlands. This taxonomy conceptualizes the possible integration of assessing the environmental impacts for tiered levels of decision making. This integration might be needed for first CCS projects as decisions on the strategic (spatial planning) level are currently absent for CCS in the Netherlands. Perpendicular to such integration is the integration of linked activities in the CCS chain and their alternatives, into one procedure. We argue that it would be beneficial to combine the separate EIA procedures for CCS activities into one procedure or at least provide close linkage between them. This issue should be carefully considered by regulators, competent authorities and project initiators in an early stage to avoid delaying legal procedures in the future. Minder weergeven

The goal of this article is to chart and analyse the development and economical performance of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) and its derivates circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and bubbling fluidized bed (BFB). A descriptive overview is given of the technology and the market penetration is discussed. Analysis shows that the technology variants (CFB and BFB) diffused differently over time. Drivers, which influenced the market diffusion and technological development are market regulation… Meer weergeven

The goal of this article is to chart and analyse the development and economical performance of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) and its derivates circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and bubbling fluidized bed (BFB). A descriptive overview is given of the technology and the market penetration is discussed. Analysis shows that the technology variants (CFB and BFB) diffused differently over time. Drivers, which influenced the market diffusion and technological development are market regulation, environmental legislation and RD&D programs. Important drivers for FBC technology are fuel availability, required applications in the market, innovation spill over and competing technologies. In this article technical characteristics are charted, which show improvements in fuel diversification, technical availability, efficiency and emissions. In terms of economical performance the results show a decline in specific investment cost. Finally, the effect of technological learning and experience on the economical performance of FBC technology is analysed using the experience curve method and theory on economies of scale. It was found that the specific investment prices (in $/kWe) decline with, respectively, 58% and 7% with every doubling of cumulative installed capacity (in MWe). The progress ratio found for new FBC plants lies between 0.90 and 0.93. Further results show that economies of scale have a significant influence on the investment price. Scale factors are found in the range of 0.62–0.81 for different groups of projects. According to these scale factors specific investment price decreases, respectively, between 25% and 12% with every doubling of plant capacity (in MWe). Minder weergeven

The main goal of this article is to determine whether cost reductions in different bioenergy systems can be quantified using the experience curve approach, and how specific issues (arising from the complexity of biomass energy systems) can be addressed. This is pursued by case studies on biofuelled combined heat and power (CHP) plants in Sweden, global development of fluidized bed boilers and Danish biogas plants. As secondary goal, the aim is to identify learning mechanisms behind technology… Meer weergeven

The main goal of this article is to determine whether cost reductions in different bioenergy systems can be quantified using the experience curve approach, and how specific issues (arising from the complexity of biomass energy systems) can be addressed. This is pursued by case studies on biofuelled combined heat and power (CHP) plants in Sweden, global development of fluidized bed boilers and Danish biogas plants. As secondary goal, the aim is to identify learning mechanisms behind technology development and cost reduction for the biomass energy systems investigated. The case studies reveal large difficulties to devise empirical experience curves for investment costs of biomass-fuelled power plants. To some extent, this is due to lack of (detailed) data. The main reason, however, are varying plant costs due to differences in scale, fuel type, plant layout, region etc. For fluidized bed boiler plants built on a global level, progress ratios (PRs) for the price of entire plants lies approximately between 90–93% (which is typical for large plant-like technologies). The costs for the boiler section alone was found to decline much faster. The experience curve approach delivers better results, when the production costs of the final energy carrier are analyzed. Electricity from biofuelled CHP-plants yields PRs of 91–92%, i.e. an 8–9% reduction of electricity production costs with each cumulative doubling of electricity production. The experience curve for biogas production displays a PR of 85% from 1984 to the beginning of 1990, and then levels to approximately 100% until 2002. For technologies developed on a local level (e.g. biogas plants), learning-by-using and learning-by-interacting are important learning mechanism, while for CHP plants utilizing fluidized bed boilers, upscaling is probably one of the main mechanisms behind cost reductions. Minder weergeven